<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" article-type="review-article" xml:lang="en">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20240028i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240028i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>My Approach to 3-Dimensional Left Ventricular Strain</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4154-3197</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Piveta</surname><given-names>Rafael Bonafim</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9083-8269</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Aguiar</surname><given-names>Miguel Osman Dias</given-names></name>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Silva</surname><given-names>Liria Lima Maria da</given-names></name>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Vieira</surname><given-names>Marcelo Luiz Campos</given-names></name>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Beneficência Portuguesa</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Beneficência Portuguesa, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>4</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do Coração</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Ecocardiografia Adultos</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto do Coração, Ecocardiografia Adultos, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Rafael Bonafim Piveta •</bold> Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein. Av. Albert Einstein, 627/701. Postal code: <postal-code>05652-900</postal-code>. Morumbi, São Paulo, SP – Brazil E-mail: <email>rbpiveta@hotmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><p>Editor responsible for the review: Marcelo Dantas Tavares de Mell</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold></p>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>28</day>
<month>05</month>
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<volume>37</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<elocation-id>e20240028</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received"><day>06</day><month>04</month><year>2024</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd"><day>08</day><month>04</month><year>2024</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted"><day>09</day><month>04</month><year>2024</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>The role of strain analysis using 2-dimensional speckle tracking (2DST) has been well documented, and it represents an important complementary tool in the assessment of cardiac mechanics, adding value in the identification of incipient and subclinical myocardial injury in different clinical scenarios. A significant advance related to echocardiography was the development of 3-dimensional speckle tracking (3DST), which has the potential to overcome many limitations intrinsic to 2-dimensional technology, offering additional parameters of myocardial deformation (such as area strain) and a more comprehensive quantification of the geometry and function of the left ventricular myocardium, based on a single image acquisition. Among its main limitations, the low temporal and spatial resolution stands out, in addition to the dependence on high-quality images and a well-trained operator. Although it is a relatively recent technique that is still under development, several experimental studies and some clinical investigations have already demonstrated the reproducibility and potential applicability of 3DST. The objective of this article is to add information about adequate analysis of 3-dimensional left ventricular strain and explore its main points of vulnerability, discussing important variables to increase the accuracy and reproducibility of this technology.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
<kwd>Three-Dimensional Imaging</kwd>
<kwd>Heart Ventricles</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="12"/>
<table-count count="2"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="19"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Echocardiographic analysis of myocardial deformation (strain) is a robust tool that adds important information regarding conventional parameters in relation to prognosis, specific parametric patterns of different cardiomyopathies, and detection of subclinical or incipient injury in different clinical scenarios.</p>
<p>Strain reflects myocardial deformation, which represents the percentage of shortening or lengthening of a determined myocardial segment in relation to its initial measurement, in systole or diastole. Currently, echocardiographic assessment of strain is mainly performed using the speckle tracking technique in the ventricular myocardium. The bright white dots that are visible on grayscale images are natural acoustic markers that represent specific tissue patterns in the myocardium, characterizing that segment's “fingerprint.” The software identifies these speckles and tracks their movements in all directions. Strain is then evaluated based on frame-by-frame comparison of the patterns of these speckles during the cardiac cycle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>The role of strain analysis using 2-dimensional speckle tracking (2DST) has been well documented; it is a sensitive and reproducible marker for analyzing cardiac mechanics, validated in both <italic>in vitro</italic> and <italic>in vivo</italic> models.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Its value in the subclinical detection of ventricular dysfunction and its prognostic role have been demonstrated in different clinical scenarios; the main parameter involved is global longitudinal strain calculated by 2DST.</p>
<p>Strain can also be assessed using the 3-dimensional speckle tracking (3DST) technique, which, in theory, has greater anatomical correspondence and minimizes many limitations related to the 2-dimensional technique.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> 3DST does not depend on geometric assumptions, as 2-dimensional imaging does, and speckle tracking is conducted by means of a homogeneous spatial distribution of each component of the myocardial displacement vector, minimizing errors related to tracking, which often occur with the 2-dimensional technique, in which the analysis of real cardiac mechanics is technically limited.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Furthermore, 3DST analysis is less time-consuming (one third shorter than 2DST), and it calculates all components of myocardial deformation in the same cardiac cycle, under the same hemodynamic condition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> The 3-dimensional technique allows for assessment of all parameters related to ventricular mechanics only by obtaining an image in the apical 4-chamber plane, at the same moment of the cardiac cycle, unlike images obtained with the 2-dimensional technique, which requires multiple image acquisitions, at different moments. As left ventricular myocardial fibers have a complex spatial orientation and they contract simultaneously in different directions, ventricular mechanics are by nature a 3-dimensional phenomenon; therefore, this assessment requires a 3D imaging method.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> 3DST analysis was compared to 2DST in relation to reference parameters of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, and it was shown to be more accurate and reproducible in patients with different left ventricular morphologies (different sizes, normal and abnormal systolic function).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> 3DST is, therefore, potentially more accurate and efficient than 2DST for analyzing ventricular mechanics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Important limitations related to the 3-dimensional technique include its low spatial and temporal resolution, lower availability, higher cost, dependence on high-quality images, and the fact that it requires examiners who are well trained in the technique. Additionally, accurate acquisition is not always feasible in multiple cycles, as required, for example, in the presence of arrhythmia.</p>
<fig id="f6">
<caption><title>Example of sequence in left ventricular strain analysis using three-dimensional speckle tracking technique. A: Multiplanar image post three-dimensional acquisition, demonstrating tracking in the left ventricular myocardium. B: Illustrative image demonstrating evaluation of the full left ventricular volume. C: Curves and table with 3D strain values of all myocardial segments, in this case, an example of basal left ventricular twist calculation. D: Bull's Eye with 3D strain values of all myocardial segments, in this case, an example of left ventricular radial deformation.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240028-gf06.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Analysis of left ventricular mechanics through 3DST allows the calculation of longitudinal strain, radial strain, circumferential strain, apical or basal rotation, twist, torsion, untwist, and area strain. Area strain is a more recent index that has been shown to be promising in several scenarios, reflecting the calculation of relative change in the endocardial surface area of a determined segment in relation to its original area (integrating analysis of myocardial fibers in the longitudinal and circumferential direction).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>The objective of this article is to provide step-by-step guidance for adequate analysis of 3-dimensional left ventricular strain and to explore the main points of vulnerability involved with this technique, discussing tools that should be considered to increase the accuracy and reproducibility of this technology.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Calculation of 3-dimensional left ventricular strain</title>
<sec>
<title>Apical 4-chamber plane image acquisition</title>
<p>Strain calculated by ST3D is analyzed based on the 3-dimensional full volume technique. Regardless of the software used, the first and main step towards an accurate assessment is the adequate acquisition of the echocardiographic image in apical 4-chamber view (for at least 3 cardiac cycles). The patient should be under satisfactory electrocardiographic monitoring; if possible, expiratory apnea should be attempted, avoiding translational movements of the heart with respiration. Regarding device adjustments, focus, depth, sector angle width, and gain should be adjusted in order to adequately include the left ventricle within the pyramidal volume. Adjustments should be made with the aim of obtaining adequate temporal resolution (at least 20 to 30 volumes per second).</p>
<p>Some special precautions should be taken, especially during acquisition. Foreshortening of the left ventricular cavity should be avoided as much as possible, as this may lead to an overestimated calculation of longitudinal strain. Care is required to include the entire endocardial border of the anterolateral wall, which is often acquired inadequately, leading to underestimation of strain values due to tracking error. Artifacts, reverberations, and especially limited visualization of the myocardium can cause speckles to be tracked inadequately, generating incorrect results. Images should be acquired using harmonics, in order to optimize their quality as much as possible.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Tracing – Defining the region of interest (ROI)</title>
<p>After acquiring the image in the apical 4-chamber plane, views are displayed in 5 planes in a standard axis, with 2 orthogonal longitudinal and 3 transverse views. The ROI, which is the left ventricular myocardium, will then be defined for full volume and strain analysis. This definition begins by marking 3 points on the left ventricular myocardium in both orthogonal views, namely, 2 points at the edges of the mitral valve annulus and 1 point at the left ventricular apex (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). Depending on the software used for analysis, this display format may vary.</p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><title>Echocardiographic image after 3-dimensional acquisition, for technical adjustments and 3DST analysis. Five planes are shown, 3 transverse and 2 longitudinal. At this point, adjustments such as alignment, gain, and choice of cardiac cycle can be made. The ROI is defined by marking 3 points on the left ventricular myocardium, 2 points at the edges of the mitral valve annulus and 1 point at the left ventricular apex (indicated by arrows).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240028-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Subsequently, left ventricular endocardial tracing, in this case, the ROI, is semi-automatically generated by Wall Motion Tracking software. At this point, if necessary, manual adjustments can be made to incorporate the entire thickness of the wall under analysis, leaving its shape and width as close as possible to the myocardial anatomy. Angulation of the ROI should be avoided; likewise, the pericardium, mitral annulus (especially when calcified), and extracardiac spaces should not be included, as these variables may underestimate the strain value. The left ventricle segmentation model may vary between software, which may include 16, 17, or 18 segments; the 17-segment model is generally more used in echocardiography and other diagnostic modalities, as it reflects myocardial perfusion territory. Currently, most devices automatically identify moments in the cardiac cycle. Current software commonly uses the peak of the QRS complex to define end diastole, marking it automatically, without interference from the examiner. However, it is possible to use event markers to manually define the beginning (end diastole) and end (end systole) of myocardial contraction in the cardiac cycle.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Assessing the tracking quality</title>
<p>After properly defining the ROI, the software automatically generates calculations of volumes, 3-dimensional ejection fraction, and strain with all left ventricular mechanical indices (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figures 2</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">3</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption><title>Example of a 3-dimensional echocardiographic study presenting full volume analysis, with estimated left ventricular volumes and ejection fraction.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240028-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption><title>Three-dimensional speckle tracking for strain analysis. Example of the 3-dimensional area strain calculation, with a table displaying the values found in each myocardial segment, in addition to the average representing the global value (red circle: −40.86%) and curves referring to each myocardial segment assessed.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240028-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>At this moment, speckle tracking should be carefully analyzed in order to define its accuracy. This analysis is essentially subjective, and adequate training and learning curve are important for the reproducibility of results. If, based on a subjective analysis, tracking errors are identified, the analysis should be corrected, restarted, or not used. Segments that do not read properly after an initial adjustment should be discarded. The greater the number of discarded segments, the less reliable the result. In general, when more than 2 myocardial segments are not well visualized, especially if they are contiguous, the analysis should not be used.</p>
<p>Depending on the software used, the ROI can encompass the entire myocardial wall or be divided into endocardial, mesocardial, and epicardial layers, with each contour selected automatically or manually. Usually, when no specific layer is selected, the results correspond to the entire wall thickness.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Interpretation of the results</title>
<p>Analysis of left ventricular myocardial strain using the 3-dimensional technique makes it possible to calculate the following mechanical indices:</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Global longitudinal strain: represents systolic myocardial fiber shortening in the longitudinal direction, with negative values, expressed as a percentage.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Global radial strain: represents systolic myocardial fiber thickening in the radial direction, with positive values, expressed as a percentage.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Global circumferential strain: represents systolic myocardial fiber shortening in the circumferential direction, with negative values, expressed as a percentage.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Rotation: represents the calculation of apical or basal rotation, with values expressed in degrees.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Twist: represents the difference between apical and basal rotations, during systole, expressed in degrees.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Torsion: represents the difference between apical and basal rotations, indexed by the longitudinal length of the left ventricle, expressed in degrees per centimeter.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Untwist: represents the difference between apical and basal reverse rotations, during diastole (elastic recoil), with a value expressed in degrees.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Global area strain: represents the calculation of the relative change in the endocardial surface area of a given segment in relation to its original area.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>It is important to highlight that, although many mechanical indices are expressed in negative values, some authors prefer to use absolute values in order to avoid interpretation errors.</p>
<p>The results of strain analysis are displayed in curves for each segment evaluated; depending on the software, they are also displayed in a table with the strain values for each segment, as well as the global strain value. All mechanical indices can be calculated based on a single acquisition in apical 4-chamber view (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>). Furthermore, the calculations are displayed on a polar map (better known as bull's eye), which is a graphic representation of the strain values of each segment, also allowing subjective parametric analysis of the myocardial deformation pattern, which is often peculiar and corresponds to certain cardiomyopathies (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figure 4</label>
<caption><title>Example of twist calculated by 3DST demonstrated by the curves and table displaying the values found in each myocardial segment.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240028-gf04.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f5">
<label>Figure 5</label>
<caption><title>Example of a polar map or bull's eye for left ventricular longitudinal strain calculated by 3DST.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240028-gf05.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>It is extremely important to understand and properly interpret the morphology and values of strain curves, also taking into consideration the moment when they occur in the cardiac cycle. In this context, multiple parameters can be analyzed, especially considering indices related to systolic function, such as end-systolic strain, which represents the deformation at the time of aortic valve closure. This is the standard parameter to describe the systolic strain value. Peak systolic strain represents the largest value of negative strain during systole. Positive peak systolic strain, which occurs at the end of diastole, represents significant myocardial stretching or possibly a relevant change in situations of regional dysfunction. Post-systolic strain (or post-systolic shortening), which is the maximum value of deformation that can arise after aortic valve closure, reflects the deformation of segments that contract after aortic valve closure and do not contribute to ventricular ejection, which is often associated with ischemic myocardial disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>As is the case with 2DST, an important limitation related to 3DST is the variability of strain measurements obtained between different software and device manufacturers, with evidence of significant disagreements. Therefore, it is suggested that the examination report include which device/software the analysis was conducted on, in order to adapt management and interpretation in assessments of evolution. Furthermore, 3-dimensional strain values are also influenced by age, sex, and hemodynamic conditions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and situations associated with pre- and post-load changes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>Strain is calculated for each ventricular segment, and the average of these values represents global strain, reflecting global left ventricular function. Several studies have demonstrated that the method has good reproducibility, and the normal ranges for the main mechanical indices derived from 3DST, considering the main software used, are well established for clinical use (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> It is worth highlighting the importance of interpreting the results of 3DST analysis considering the patient's clinical context, individualizing on a case-by-case basis.</p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Reference values (%) for left ventricular strain calculated by 3DST according to the leading manufacturers and software</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="14%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle"/>
<th align="center" valign="middle">TomTec</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">EchoPAC</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">3DWM<break/> tracking software</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Philips</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">General Eletric</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Toshiba Medical<break/> Systems</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Longitudinal strain</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−19,84<break/> (−21,21 a −18,48)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−19,40<break/> (−20,06 a −18,74)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−17,04<break/> (−17,91 a −16,17)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−19,67<break/> (−21,27 a −18,08)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−19,40<break/> (−20,06 a −18,74)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−17,04<break/> (−17,91 a −16,17)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Circumferential strain</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">23.30<break/> (28,33 a 18,26)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−19,47<break/> (−20,49 a −18,45)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−28,79<break/> (−32,90 a 24,78)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−22,13<break/> (−26,73 a −17,52)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−19,47<break/> (−21,49 a −18,45)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−28,79<break/> (−32,90 a 24,78)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Radial strain</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">55.99<break/> (44,73 a 67,25)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">50,41<break/> (47,96 a −52,87)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">33,17<break/> (24,38 a 41,97)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">59,24<break/> (41,91 a 76,56)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">50,41<break/> (47,96 a 52,87)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">33,17<break/> (−24,38 a 41,97)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Area strain</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−34,14<break/> (−37,21 a −31,07)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−32,50<break/> (−33,87 a −31,14)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−42,07<break/> (−46,28 a −39,86)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−33,54<break/> (−37,29 a −29,79)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−32,50<break/> (−33,87 a −31,14)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−43,07<break/> (−46,28 a −39,86)</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1">
<p>95% confidence interval shown in parentheses. 3DWM: 3-dimensional wall motion.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>The application of 3DST has been demonstrated in different clinical scenarios, such as chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity; ischemic cardiomyopathy; hypertensive heart disease; heart failure with preserved ejection fraction; prognosis and identification of acute rejection in transplant patients; hypertrophic, dilated, and infiltrative cardiomyopathies; valvular heart disease; and after procedures such as percutaneous implantation of an aortic valve prosthesis and percutaneous correction of mitral insufficiency with MitraClip<sup>®</sup>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
<p>The analysis of left ventricular mechanics using 3DST makes it possible to calculate 3-dimensional area strain. This index represents a semi-automatic and relatively new parameter, which has shown to be very promising in different clinical conditions, in addition to presenting excellent reproducibility, therefore making it consistent and reliable.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Conceptually, it represents the fractional change in myocardial surface area during systole and integrates the assessment of circumferential and longitudinal fibers in the endocardial and subendocardial layers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> In different clinical contexts, especially those involving cellular oxidative stress as one of the mechanisms of myocardial injury, such as chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity, studies suggest that altered 3-dimensional area strain is a more sensitive marker of ventricular dysfunction and that it may represent very early damage to cardiomyocytes, with a potential prognostic impact in these scenarios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
<p>Although numerous studies have demonstrated the potential impact of 3-dimensional technology for analysis of ventricular mechanics, larger, more robust studies with greater scientific potential are necessary to establish the routine use of 3DST in echocardiography laboratories. Furthermore, technological advances with improved spatial and temporal resolution and a standardized methodology to obtain manufacturer-independent 3-dimensional strain measurements are expected in the future for a broad application of 3DST not only in research environments, but also in specific clinical scenarios (Central Illustration).</p>
</sec>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1"><p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold></p>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><p><bold>Study Association</bold></p>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><p><bold>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</bold></p>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<ref-list>
<title>References</title>
<ref id="B1">
<label>1</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Arias-Godínez</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Guadalajara-Boo</surname><given-names>JF</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Patel</surname><given-names>AR</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Pandian</surname><given-names>NG</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Function and Mechanics of the Left Ventricle: From Tissue Doppler Imaging to Three Dimensional Speckle Tracking</article-title>
<source>Arch Cardiol Mex</source>
<year>2011</year>
<volume>81</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<fpage>114</fpage>
<lpage>125</lpage>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Arias-Godínez JA, Guadalajara-Boo JF, Patel AR, Pandian NG. Function and Mechanics of the Left Ventricle: From Tissue Doppler Imaging to Three Dimensional Speckle Tracking. Arch Cardiol Mex. 2011;81(2):114-25.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B2">
<label>2</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Amundsen</surname><given-names>BH</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Helle-Valle</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Edvardsen</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Torp</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Crosby</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lyseggen</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Noninvasive Myocardial Strain Measurement by Speckle Tracking Echocardiography: Validation Against Sonomicrometry and Tagged Magnetic Resonance Imaging</article-title>
<source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
<year>2006</year>
<volume>47</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<fpage>789</fpage>
<lpage>793</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jacc.2005.10.040</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Amundsen BH, Helle-Valle T, Edvardsen T, Torp H, Crosby J, Lyseggen E, et al. Noninvasive Myocardial Strain Measurement by Speckle Tracking Echocardiography: Validation Against Sonomicrometry and Tagged Magnetic Resonance Imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;47(4):789-93. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2005.10.040.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B3">
<label>3</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Sorrentino</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Esposito</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Pezzullo</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Galderisi</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Real-time Three-dimensional Speckle Tracking Echocardiography: Technical Aspects and Clinical Applications</article-title>
<source>Res Reports Clin Cardiol</source>
<year>2016</year>
<volume>7</volume>
<fpage>147</fpage>
<lpage>158</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.2147/RRCC.S107374</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Sorrentino R, Esposito R, Pezzullo E, Galderisi M. Real-time Three-dimensional Speckle Tracking Echocardiography: Technical Aspects and Clinical Applications. Res Reports Clin Cardiol. 2016;7:147-58. doi: 10.2147/RRCC.S107374.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B4">
<label>4</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Isla</surname><given-names>LP</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Balcones</surname><given-names>DV</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Zamorano</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Three-dimensional Speckle Tracking</article-title>
<source>Curr Cardiovasc Imaging Rep</source>
<year>2008</year>
<volume>1</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>25</fpage>
<lpage>29</lpage>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Isla LP, Balcones DV, Zamorano J. Three-dimensional Speckle Tracking. Curr Cardiovasc Imaging Rep. 2008;1(1):25-9.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B5">
<label>5</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Isla</surname><given-names>LP</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Balcones</surname><given-names>DV</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Fernández-Golfín</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Marcos-Alberca</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Almería</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Rodrigo</surname><given-names>JL</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Three-dimensional-wall Motion Tracking: A New and Faster Tool for Myocardial Strain Assessment: Comparison with Two-dimensional-wall Motion Tracking</article-title>
<source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
<year>2009</year>
<volume>22</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<fpage>325</fpage>
<lpage>330</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2009.01.001</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Isla LP, Balcones DV, Fernández-Golfín C, Marcos-Alberca P, Almería C, Rodrigo JL, et al. Three-dimensional-wall Motion Tracking: A New and Faster Tool for Myocardial Strain Assessment: Comparison with Two-dimensional-wall Motion Tracking. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2009;22(4):325-30. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2009.01.001.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B6">
<label>6</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Muraru</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Niero</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Rodriguez-Zanella</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Cherata</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Badano</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Three-dimensional Speckle-tracking Echocardiography: Benefits and Limitations of Integrating Myocardial Mechanics with Three-dimensional Imaging</article-title>
<source>Cardiovasc Diagn Ther</source>
<year>2018</year>
<volume>8</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>101</fpage>
<lpage>117</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.21037/cdt.2017.06.01</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Muraru D, Niero A, Rodriguez-Zanella H, Cherata D, Badano L. Three-dimensional Speckle-tracking Echocardiography: Benefits and Limitations of Integrating Myocardial Mechanics with Three-dimensional Imaging. Cardiovasc Diagn Ther. 2018;8(1):101-17. doi: 10.21037/cdt.2017.06.01.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B7">
<label>7</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Nesser</surname><given-names>HJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Mor-Avi</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Gorissen</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Weinert</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Steringer-Mascherbauer</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Niel</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Quantification of Left Ventricular Volumes Using Three-dimensional Echocardiographic Speckle Tracking: Comparison with MRI</article-title>
<source>Eur Heart J</source>
<year>2009</year>
<volume>30</volume>
<issue>13</issue>
<fpage>1565</fpage>
<lpage>1573</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/eurheartj/ehp187</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Nesser HJ, Mor-Avi V, Gorissen W, Weinert L, Steringer-Mascherbauer R, Niel J, et al. Quantification of Left Ventricular Volumes Using Three-dimensional Echocardiographic Speckle Tracking: Comparison with MRI. Eur Heart J. 2009;30(13):1565-73. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehp187.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B8">
<label>8</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Kleijn</surname><given-names>SA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Aly</surname><given-names>MF</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Terwee</surname><given-names>CB</given-names></name>
<name><surname>van Rossum</surname><given-names>AC</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kamp</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Reliability of Left Ventricular Volumes and Function Measurements Using Three-dimensional Speckle Tracking Echocardiography</article-title>
<source>Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
<year>2012</year>
<volume>13</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<fpage>159</fpage>
<lpage>168</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/ejechocard/jer174</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Kleijn SA, Aly MF, Terwee CB, van Rossum AC, Kamp O. Reliability of Left Ventricular Volumes and Function Measurements Using Three-dimensional Speckle Tracking Echocardiography. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2012;13(2):159-68. doi: 10.1093/ejechocard/jer174.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B9">
<label>9</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Kleijn</surname><given-names>SA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Aly</surname><given-names>MF</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Terwee</surname><given-names>CB</given-names></name>
<name><surname>van Rossum</surname><given-names>AC</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kamp</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Three-dimensional Speckle Tracking Echocardiography for Automatic Assessment of Global and Regional Left Ventricular Function Based on Area Strain</article-title>
<source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
<year>2011</year>
<volume>24</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<fpage>314</fpage>
<lpage>321</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2011.01.014</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Kleijn SA, Aly MF, Terwee CB, van Rossum AC, Kamp O. Three-dimensional Speckle Tracking Echocardiography for Automatic Assessment of Global and Regional Left Ventricular Function Based on Area Strain. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2011;24(3):314-21. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2011.01.014.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B10">
<label>10</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Mor-Avi</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lang</surname><given-names>RM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Badano</surname><given-names>LP</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Belohlavek</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Cardim</surname><given-names>NM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Derumeaux</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Current and Evolving Echocardiographic Techniques for the Quantitative Evaluation of Cardiac Mechanics: ASE/EAE Consensus Statement on Methodology and Indications Endorsed by the Japanese Society of Echocardiography</article-title>
<source>Eur J Echocardiogr</source>
<year>2011</year>
<volume>12</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<fpage>167</fpage>
<lpage>205</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/ejechocard/jer021</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Mor-Avi V, Lang RM, Badano LP, Belohlavek M, Cardim NM, Derumeaux G, et al. Current and Evolving Echocardiographic Techniques for the Quantitative Evaluation of Cardiac Mechanics: ASE/EAE Consensus Statement on Methodology and Indications Endorsed by the Japanese Society of Echocardiography. Eur J Echocardiogr. 2011;12(3):167-205. doi: 10.1093/ejechocard/jer021.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B11">
<label>11</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Kleijn</surname><given-names>SA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Pandian</surname><given-names>NG</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Thomas</surname><given-names>JD</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Isla</surname><given-names>LP</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kamp</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Zuber</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Normal Reference Values of Left Ventricular Strain Using Three-dimensional Speckle Tracking Echocardiography: Results from a Multicentre Study</article-title>
<source>Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
<year>2015</year>
<volume>16</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<fpage>410</fpage>
<lpage>416</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/ehjci/jeu213</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Kleijn SA, Pandian NG, Thomas JD, Isla LP, Kamp O, Zuber M, et al. Normal Reference Values of Left Ventricular Strain Using Three-dimensional Speckle Tracking Echocardiography: Results from a Multicentre Study. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2015;16(4):410-6. doi: 10.1093/ehjci/jeu213.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B12">
<label>12</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Truong</surname><given-names>VT</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Phan</surname><given-names>HT</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Pham</surname><given-names>KNP</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Duong</surname><given-names>HNH</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ngo</surname><given-names>TNM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Palmer</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Normal Ranges of Left Ventricular Strain by Three-Dimensional Speckle-Tracking Echocardiography in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis</article-title>
<source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
<year>2019</year>
<volume>32</volume>
<issue>12</issue>
<fpage>1586</fpage>
<lpage>1597</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2019.07.012</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Truong VT, Phan HT, Pham KNP, Duong HNH, Ngo TNM, Palmer C, et al. Normal Ranges of Left Ventricular Strain by Three-Dimensional Speckle-Tracking Echocardiography in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2019;32(12):1586-97. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2019.07.012.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B13">
<label>13</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Du</surname><given-names>GQ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Hsiung</surname><given-names>MC</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Wu</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Qu</surname><given-names>SH</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Wei</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Yin</surname><given-names>WH</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Three-Dimensional Speckle-Tracking Echocardiographic Monitoring of Acute Rejection in Heart Transplant Recipients</article-title>
<source>J Ultrasound Med</source>
<year>2016</year>
<volume>35</volume>
<issue>6</issue>
<fpage>1167</fpage>
<lpage>1176</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.7863/ultra.15.07013</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Du GQ, Hsiung MC, Wu Y, Qu SH, Wei J, Yin WH, et al. Three-Dimensional Speckle-Tracking Echocardiographic Monitoring of Acute Rejection in Heart Transplant Recipients. J Ultrasound Med. 2016;35(6):1167-76. doi: 10.7863/ultra.15.07013.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B14">
<label>14</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Matsumoto</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Tanaka</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kaneko</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ryo</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Fukuda</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Tatsumi</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Contractile Reserve Assessed by Three-dimensional Global Circumferential Strain as a Predictor of Cardiovascular Events in Patients with Idiopathic Dilated Cardiomyopathy</article-title>
<source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
<year>2012</year>
<volume>25</volume>
<issue>12</issue>
<fpage>1299</fpage>
<lpage>1308</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2012.09.018</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Matsumoto K, Tanaka H, Kaneko A, Ryo K, Fukuda Y, Tatsumi K, et al. Contractile Reserve Assessed by Three-dimensional Global Circumferential Strain as a Predictor of Cardiovascular Events in Patients with Idiopathic Dilated Cardiomyopathy. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2012;25(12):1299-308. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2012.09.018.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B15">
<label>15</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Li</surname><given-names>CM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Li</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Bai</surname><given-names>WJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Zhang</surname><given-names>XL</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Tang</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Qing</surname><given-names>Z</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Value of Three-dimensional Speckle-tracking in Detecting Left Ventricular Dysfunction in Patients with Aortic Valvular Diseases</article-title>
<source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
<year>2013</year>
<volume>26</volume>
<issue>11</issue>
<fpage>1245</fpage>
<lpage>1252</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2013.07.018</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Li CM, Li C, Bai WJ, Zhang XL, Tang H, Qing Z, et al. Value of Three-dimensional Speckle-tracking in Detecting Left Ventricular Dysfunction in Patients with Aortic Valvular Diseases. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2013;26(11):1245-52. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2013.07.018.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B16">
<label>16</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Schueler</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Sinning</surname><given-names>JM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Momcilovic</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Weber</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ghanem</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Werner</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Three-dimensional Speckle-tracking Analysis of Left Ventricular Function After Transcatheter Aortic Valve Implantation</article-title>
<source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
<year>2012</year>
<volume>25</volume>
<issue>8</issue>
<fpage>827</fpage>
<lpage>834</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2012.04.023</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Schueler R, Sinning JM, Momcilovic D, Weber M, Ghanem A, Werner N, et al. Three-dimensional Speckle-tracking Analysis of Left Ventricular Function After Transcatheter Aortic Valve Implantation. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2012;25(8):827-34. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2012.04.023.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B17">
<label>17</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Vitarelli</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Mangieri</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Capotosto</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Tanzilli</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>
<name><surname>D'Angeli</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Viceconte</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Assessment of Biventricular Function by Three-Dimensional Speckle-Tracking Echocardiography in Secondary Mitral Regurgitation after Repair with the MitraClip System</article-title>
<source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
<year>2015</year>
<volume>28</volume>
<issue>9</issue>
<fpage>1070</fpage>
<lpage>1082</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2015.04.005</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Vitarelli A, Mangieri E, Capotosto L, Tanzilli G, D'Angeli I, Viceconte N, et al. Assessment of Biventricular Function by Three-Dimensional Speckle-Tracking Echocardiography in Secondary Mitral Regurgitation after Repair with the MitraClip System. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2015;28(9):1070-82. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2015.04.005.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B18">
<label>18</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Monte</surname><given-names>IP</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Mangiafico</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Buccheri</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Bottari</surname><given-names>VE</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lavanco</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Arcidiacono</surname><given-names>AA</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Myocardial Deformational Adaptations to Different Forms of Training: A Real-time Three-dimensional Speckle Tracking Echocardiographic Study</article-title>
<source>Heart Vessels</source>
<year>2015</year>
<volume>30</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<fpage>386</fpage>
<lpage>395</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s00380-014-0520-9</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Monte IP, Mangiafico S, Buccheri S, Bottari VE, Lavanco V, Arcidiacono AA, et al. Myocardial Deformational Adaptations to Different Forms of Training: A Real-time Three-dimensional Speckle Tracking Echocardiographic Study. Heart Vessels. 2015;30(3):386-95. doi: 10.1007/s00380-014-0520-9.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B19">
<label>19</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Piveta</surname><given-names>RB</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Rodrigues</surname><given-names>ACT</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Vieira</surname><given-names>MLC</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Fischer</surname><given-names>CH</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Afonso</surname><given-names>TR</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Daminello</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Early Change in Area Strain Detected by 3D Speckle Tracking Is Associated With Subsequent Cardiotoxicity in Patients Treated With Low Doses of Anthracyclines</article-title>
<source>Front Cardiovasc Med</source>
<year>2022</year>
<volume>9</volume>
<fpage>842532</fpage>
<lpage>842532</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3389/fcvm.2022.842532</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Piveta RB, Rodrigues ACT, Vieira MLC, Fischer CH, Afonso TR, Daminello E, et al. Early Change in Area Strain Detected by 3D Speckle Tracking Is Associated With Subsequent Cardiotoxicity in Patients Treated With Low Doses of Anthracyclines. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2022;9:842532. doi: 10.3389/fcvm.2022.842532.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
</ref-list>
</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240028</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Como Eu Faço Strain 3D do Ventrículo Esquerdo</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4154-3197</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Piveta</surname><given-names>Rafael Bonafim</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9083-8269</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Aguiar</surname><given-names>Miguel Osman Dias</given-names></name>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Silva</surname><given-names>Liria Lima Maria da</given-names></name>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7"><sup>3</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Vieira</surname><given-names>Marcelo Luiz Campos</given-names></name>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8"><sup>4</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff6">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Beneficência Portuguesa, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff7">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff8">
<label>4</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto do Coração, Ecocardiografia Adultos, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspondência: Rafael Bonafim Piveta •</bold> Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein. Av. Albert Einstein, 627/701. CEP: <postal-code>05652-900</postal-code>. Morumbi, São Paulo, SP – Brasil E-mail: <email>rbpiveta@hotmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><p>Editor responsável pela revisão: Marcelo Dantas Tavares de Melo</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</bold></p>
<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A análise do <italic>strain</italic> pela técnica de ST2D tem seu papel bem documentado e representa uma importante ferramenta complementar na avaliação da mecânica cardíaca, agregando valor na identificação de injúria miocárdica incipiente e subclínica em diferentes cenários clínicos. Um expressivo avanço relacionado à ecocardiografia foi o desenvolvimento do ST3D, que tem o potencial de superar muitas limitações intrínsecas à tecnologia bidimensional, oferecendo parâmetros adicionais de deformação miocárdica (como por exemplo a <italic>area strain</italic>) e uma quantificação mais abrangente da geometria e função do miocárdio ventricular esquerdo, a partir de uma única aquisição de imagem. Dentre as suas principais limitações, destacam-se a baixa resolução temporal e espacial, além da dependência de imagens de boa qualidade e do operador bem treinado. Embora seja uma técnica relativamente recente, ainda em desenvolvimento, vários estudos experimentais e algumas investigações clínicas já demonstraram a reprodutibilidade e a potencial aplicabilidade do ST3D. Este artigo tem o objetivo de agregar informações para uma adequada análise do <italic>strain</italic> tridimensional do ventrículo esquerdo e explorar os seus principais pontos de vulnerabilidade, discutindo variáveis importantes para aumentar a acurácia e a reprodutibilidade desta tecnologia.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
<kwd>Imageamento Tridimensional</kwd>
<kwd>Ventrículos do Coração</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>A análise ecocardiográfica da deformação miocárdica (<italic>strain</italic>) é uma ferramenta robusta que agrega importantes informações aos parâmetros convencionais em relação a prognóstico, padrões paramétricos particulares de diversas cardiomiopatias e detecção de lesão subclínica ou incipiente em diversos cenários clínicos.</p>
<p>O <italic>strain</italic> corresponde à deformação miocárdica, que representa o percentual de encurtamento ou alongamento de determinado segmento miocárdico em relação à sua medida inicial, na sístole ou na diástole. Atualmente, a avaliação do <italic>strain</italic> pela ecocardiografia é realizada principalmente pela técnica de <italic>speckle tracking</italic> (rastreamento dos “pontos brilhantes”) no miocárdio ventricular. Os pontos brancos e brilhantes visibilizados nas imagens em escala de cinza são marcadores acústicos naturais e representam padrões específicos do tecido no miocárdico, caracterizando a “impressão digital” daquele segmento. O <italic>software</italic> identifica estes <italic>speckles</italic> e rastreia os seus movimentos em todas as direções. O <italic>strain</italic> é então avaliado com base na comparação dos padrões destes <italic>speckles</italic> quadro a quadro durante o ciclo cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>A análise do <italic>strain</italic> pela técnica de <italic>speckle tracking</italic> bidimensional (ST2D) tem seu papel bem documentado e representa um marcador sensível e reprodutível de análise da mecânica cardíaca, validado em modelos <italic>in vitro</italic> e <italic>in vivo.</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> O seu valor na detecção subclínica de disfunção ventricular, bem como o seu papel prognóstico, têm sido demonstrado em diferentes cenários clínicos, sendo o principal parâmetro envolvido o <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal global calculado pelo ST2D.</p>
<p>O <italic>strain</italic> também pode ser avaliado pela técnica de <italic>speckle tracking</italic> tridimensional (ST3D), que, em teoria, tem maior correspondência anatômica e minimiza muitas limitações relacionadas à técnica bidimensional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> O ST3D não depende de presunções geométricas, como ocorre com as imagens bidimensionais e o rastreamento dos <italic>speckles</italic> é feito por meio de uma distribuição espacial homogênea de cada componente do vetor de deslocamento miocárdico, minimizando erros relacionados a este rastreamento, fato que frequentemente ocorre com a técnica bidimensional, na qual a análise da mecânica cardíaca real fica tecnicamente limitada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Além disto, sua análise consome menos tempo (duração um terço menor que o ST2D) e calcula todos os componentes de deformação miocárdica no mesmo ciclo cardíaco e sob a mesma condição hemodinâmica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> A técnica tridimensional permite a avaliação de todos os parâmetros relacionados à mecânica ventricular apenas com a obtenção de uma imagem no plano apical 4 câmaras, no mesmo momento do ciclo cardíaco, diferentemente da obtenção de imagens com a técnica bidimensional, na qual são necessárias múltiplas aquisições de imagens, em momentos diferentes. Como as fibras miocárdicas do ventrículo esquerdo têm uma orientação espacial complexa e se contraem simultaneamente em diferentes direções, a mecânica ventricular é por natureza um fenômeno tridimensional e, portanto, sua avaliação requer um método de imagem 3D.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A análise do ST3D foi comparada ao ST2D em relação aos parâmetros de referência da ressonância magnética cardíaca e demonstrou ser mais acurada e reprodutível em pacientes com diferentes morfologias do ventrículo esquerdo (distintos tamanhos, função sistólica normal e anormal).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> O ST3D é, portanto, potencialmente mais acurado e eficiente que o ST2D para a análise da mecânica ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f12">
<caption><title>Exemplo de sequência na análise do <italic>strain</italic> do ventrículo esquerdo utilizando a técnica de <italic>speckle tracking</italic> tridimensional. A: Imagem multiplanar pós aquisição tridimensional, demonstrando o <italic>tracking</italic> no miocárdio ventricular esquerdo. B: Imagem ilustrativa demonstrando a avaliação do <italic>full volume</italic> ventricular esquerdo. C: Curvas e tabela com os valores do <italic>strain</italic> 3D de todos os segmentos miocárdico, no caso, exemplo do cálculo da torção basal do ventrículo esquerdo. D: <italic>Bull's Eye</italic> com os valores do <italic>strain</italic> 3D de todos os segmentos miocárdicos, no caso, exemplo da deformação radial do ventrículo esquerdo.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240028-gf06-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Importantes limitações relacionadas à técnica tridimensional são sua baixa resolução espacial e temporal, menor disponibilidade e maior custo, dependência de imagens de boa qualidade e exigência de examinadores bem treinados na técnica, além de não ser sempre factível a aquisição acurada em múltiplos ciclos, como exigido por exemplo, na presença de arritmia.</p>
<p>A análise da mecânica ventricular esquerda através do ST3D permite o cálculo do <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal, <italic>strain</italic> radial, <italic>strain</italic> circunferencial, rotação (apical ou basal), <italic>twist,</italic> torção, <italic>untwist</italic> e <italic>area</italic> <italic>strain.</italic> A <italic>area strain</italic> é um índice mais recente e que tem se demonstrado promissor em diversos cenários, representando o cálculo da mudança relativa da área da superfície endocárdica de um determinado segmento em relação à sua área original (integrando a análise de fibras miocárdicas em sentidos longitudinal e circunferencial).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>O objetivo deste artigo é orientar um passo a passo para uma adequada análise do <italic>strain</italic> tridimensional do ventrículo esquerdo e explorar os principais pontos de vulnerabilidade desta técnica, discutindo ferramentas que devem ser consideradas para aumentar a acurácia e a reprodutibilidade desta tecnologia.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Cálculo do <italic>strain</italic> tridimensional do ventrículo esquerdo</title>
<sec>
<title>Aquisição da imagem em plano apical de 4 câmaras</title>
<p>O <italic>strain</italic> calculado pelo ST3D tem sua análise baseada na técnica do <italic>full volume</italic> tridimensional. Independente do <italic>software</italic> utilizado, o primeiro e principal passo para uma avaliação acurada é a adequada aquisição da imagem ecocardiográfica em incidência apical de 4 câmaras (pelo menos 3 ciclos cardíacos). O paciente deve estar sob monitorização eletrocardiográfica satisfatória e, se possível, deve-se tentar apneia expiratória, evitando os movimentos de translação do coração com as incursões respiratórias. Com relação aos ajustes do aparelho, o foco, a profundidade, a largura do ângulo do setor e o ganho devem ser ajustados, a fim de incluir adequadamente o ventrículo esquerdo dentro do volume piramidal. Os ajustes também são direcionados para se obter uma adequada resolução temporal (pelo menos 20 a 30 volumes por segundo).</p>
<p>Alguns cuidados devem especialmente ser tomados no momento da aquisição. Deve-se evitar ao máximo o encurtamento da cavidade ventricular esquerda (<italic>foreshortening</italic>), pois isto pode levar a uma superestimativa do cálculo do <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal. Cuidado para incluir toda a borda endocárdica da parede anterolateral, frequentemente adquirida de forma inadequada, levando a subestimativa de valores de <italic>strain</italic> por erro de rastreamento. Artefatos, reverberações e principalmente a visibilização limitada do miocárdio podem fazer com que os <italic>speckles</italic> sejam rastreados inadequadamente, gerando resultados incorretos. As imagens devem ser adquiridas com recurso de harmônica, a fim de otimizar sua qualidade ao máximo.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Tracing – Definição da região de interesse (ROI)</title>
<p>Após a aquisição da imagem em plano apical de 4 câmaras, são expostas visões em cinco planos com orientação em eixo padrão, sendo duas longitudinais orientadas ortogonalmente e três transversais. A ROI (do inglês <italic>region of interest)</italic>,<italic></italic> que é o miocárdio ventricular esquerdo, será então definido para a análise do <italic>full volume</italic> e do <italic>strain</italic>. Esta definição se inicia a partir da marcação de três pontos no miocárdio do ventrículo esquerdo nas duas visões ortogonais, sendo dois pontos nas extremidades do anel valvar mitral e um ponto no ápice do ventrículo esquerdo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 1</xref>). Dependendo do <italic>software</italic> utilizado para a análise, esta forma de apresentação pode variar.</p>
<fig id="f7">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption><title>Imagem ecocardiográfica após aquisição tridimensional, para ajustes técnicos e análise do <italic>ST3D</italic>. São expostos cinco planos, sendo três transversais de referência e dois longitudinais. Neste momento ajustes como alinhamento, ganho e escolha do ciclo cardíaco podem ser realizados. A definição da região de inteteresse ocorre a partir da marcação de três pontos no miocárdio do ventrículo esquerdo, sendo dois pontos nas extremidades do anel valvar mitral e um ponto no ápice do ventrículo esquerdo (indicado pelas setas).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240028-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Em seguida, o traçado endocárdico do ventrículo esquerdo, no caso, a ROI é gerado de forma semiautomática pelo <italic>Wall Motion Tracking</italic> <italic>software</italic>.<italic></italic> Neste momento, ajustes manuais, se necessários, podem ser realizados para incorporar toda a espessura da parede em análise, deixando seu formato e sua largura os mais próximos possíveis da anatomia miocárdica. Deve-se evitar angulações da ROI, bem como não incluir o pericárdio, o anel mitral (especialmente quando calcificado) e os espaços extracardíacos, pois estas variáveis podem subestimar o valor do <italic>strain</italic>. O modelo de segmentação do ventrículo esquerdo pode variar entre os <italic>softwares</italic>, podendo ser o de 16, 17 ou 18 segmentos, sendo o de 17 segmentos geralmente mais utilizado na ecocardiografia e em outras modalidades diagnósticas, pois reflete o território de perfusão miocárdica. Atualmente, a maioria dos aparelhos identificam automaticamente os momentos do ciclo cardíaco. Os softwares atuais comumente usam o pico do complexo QRS para definir a diástole final, fazendo essa marcação de forma automática, sem interferência do examinador. Entretanto, é possível utilizar os marcadores de eventos para manualmente definir o início (diástole final) e o fim (sístole final) da contração miocárdica no ciclo cardíaco.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Avaliar a qualidade do tracking</title>
<p>Após adequada definição da ROI o <italic>software</italic> automaticamente gera os cálculos dos volumes, da fração de ejeção tridimensional e do <italic>strain</italic> com todos os índices mecânicos do ventrículo esquerdo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figuras 2</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">3</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption><title>Exemplo de estudo ecocardiográfico tridimensional apresentando análise do <italic>full volume</italic>, com estimativa dos volumes e da fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240028-gf02-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f9">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption><title>ST3D para a análise do <italic>strain</italic>. Exemplo do cálculo da <italic>area strain</italic> tridimensional, com tabela com os valores encontrados em cada segmento miocárdico, bem como a média representando o valor global (círculo vermelho: <italic>–</italic>40,86%), além das curvas referentes a cada segmento miocárdico avaliado.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240028-gf03-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Neste momento, o <italic>tracking</italic> (ou rastreamento) dos <italic>speckles</italic> deve ser criteriosamente analisado a fim de definir sua acurácia. Esta análise é essencialmente subjetiva, sendo importante um adequado treinamento e curva de aprendizado para a reprodutibilidade dos resultados. Caso, a partir de uma análise subjetiva, seja identificado erros no rastreamento a análise deve ser corrigida, reiniciada ou não utilizada. Segmentos que não apresentam leitura adequada após um ajuste inicial devem ser descartados. Quanto maior o número de segmentos descartados, menor a confiabilidade no resultado. De forma geral, quando mais de dois segmentos miocárdicos, especialmente quando contíguos, não forem bem visibilizados, a análise não deve ser utilizada.</p>
<p>Dependendo do <italic>software</italic> utilizado, a ROI pode englobar toda a parede miocárdica ou se dividir em camadas endocárdica, mesocárdica e epicárdica, podendo cada contorno ser selecionado de forma automática ou manualmente. Usualmente, quando não ocorre seleção de alguma camada específica, os resultados correspondem a toda a espessura da parede.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Interpretação dos resultados</title>
<p>A análise da deformação miocárdica do ventrículo esquerdo pela técnica tridimensional permite o cálculo dos seguintes índices mecânicos:</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label><p><italic>Strain</italic> longitudinal global: representa o encurtamento sistólico da fibra miocárdica no sentido longitudinal, com valores negativos e expressos em porcentagem.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p><italic>Strain</italic> radial global: representa o espessamento sistólico radial da fibra miocárdica, com valores positivos e expressos em porcentagem.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p><italic>Strain</italic> circunferencial global: representa o encurtamento sistólico da fibra miocárdica no sentido circunferencial, com valores negativos e expressos em porcentagem.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Rotação: representa o cálculo da rotação apical ou basal com valores expressos em graus.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p><italic>Twist:</italic> representa a diferença entre as rotações apical e basal, durante a sístole, expresso em graus.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Torção: representa a diferença entre as rotações apical e basal, indexada pelo comprimento longitudinal do ventrículo esquerdo, com valor expresso em graus por centímetro.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p><italic>Untwist</italic>: representa a diferença entre as rotações reversas apical e basal, durante a diástole (recolhimento elástico), com valor expresso em graus.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p><italic>Area</italic> <italic>strain</italic> global: representa o cálculo da mudança relativa da área da superfície endocárdica de um determinado segmento em relação à sua área original.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>É importante destacar que, apesar de muitos índices mecânicos serem expressos em valores negativos, alguns autores preferem utilizar valores absolutos a fim de evitar erros de interpretação.</p>
<p>Os resultados da análise do <italic>strain</italic> são apresentados em curvas referentes a cada segmento avaliado e, dependendo do <italic>software</italic>, também são apresentados em uma tabela com os valores de <italic>strain</italic> de cada segmento, bem como o valor do <italic>strain</italic> global. Todos os índices mecânicos podem ser calculados a partir da aquisição única em incidência apical 4 câmaras (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 4</xref>). Além disto, os cálculos são apresentados em um mapa polar (mais conhecido como <italic>bull's eye</italic>) que é uma representação gráfica dos valores de <italic>strain</italic> de cada segmento, permitindo também uma análise paramétrica subjetiva do padrão da deformação miocárdica, que muitas vezes é peculiar e correspondente a determinadas cardiomiopatias (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 5</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f10">
<label>Figura 4</label>
<caption><title>Exemplo do <italic>twist</italic> calculado pelo ST3D demonstrado pelas curvas e tabela com os valores encontrados em cada segmento miocárdico.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240028-gf04-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f11">
<label>Figura 5</label>
<caption><title>Exemplo de mapa polar ou <italic>bull's eye</italic> do <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal do ventrículo esquerdo calculado pelo ST3D.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240028-gf05-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>É de extrema importância compreender e interpretar adequadamente a morfologia e os valores das curvas de <italic>strain</italic>, levando também em consideração o momento em que ocorrem no ciclo cardíaco. Neste contexto, diversos parâmetros podem ser analisados, especialmente considerando os índices relacionados à função sistólica, tais como o <italic>strain</italic> sistólico final, que representa a deformação no momento do fechamento da valva aórtica. Esse é o parâmetro padrão para descrever o valor do <italic>strain</italic> sistólico. O <italic>strain</italic> de pico sistólico representa o maior valor de deformação negativa durante a sístole. O <italic>strain</italic> de pico sistólico positivo, que ocorre no final da diástole, representa um alongamento miocárdico significativo ou possivelmente uma alteração relevante em situações de disfunção regional. O <italic>strain</italic> pós-sistólico (ou encurtamento pós-sistólico), que é o valor máximo de deformação que pode surgir após o fechamento da valva aórtica, reflete a deformação de segmentos que se contraem após o fechamento da valva aórtica e não contribuem para a ejeção ventricular, estando frequentemente associado a doença miocárdica isquêmica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>Assim como ocorre com o ST2D, uma importante limitação relacionada ao ST3D é a variabilidade de medidas do <italic>strain</italic> obtidas entre diferentes fabricantes de aparelhos e softwares, com evidência de divergências significativas. Assim, é sugerido que conste no laudo do exame em qual aparelho/<italic>software</italic> a análise foi realizada, a fim de adequar o direcionamento e a interpretação em avaliações evolutivas. Além disto, os valores de <italic>strain</italic> tridimensional também são influenciados por idade, sexo e condições hemodinâmicas como frequência cardíaca, pressão arterial e situações associadas a alterações de pré e pós-carga.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>O cálculo do <italic>strain</italic> é realizado para cada segmento do ventrículo e a média desses valores representa o <italic>strain</italic> global, refletindo a função global do ventrículo esquerdo. Vários estudos demonstram a boa reprodutibilidade do método e os intervalos de normalidade para os principais índices mecânicos derivados do ST3D, considerando os principais <italic>softwares</italic> utilizados, estão bem estabelecidos para uso clínico (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Vale destacar a importância de interpretar os resultados da análise do ST3D considerando o contexto clínico do paciente, individualizando caso a caso.</p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Valores de referência (%) para o strain do ventrículo esquerdo calculado pelo ST3D de acordo com os principais fabricantes e softwares</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="14%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle"/>
<th align="center" valign="middle">TomTec</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">EchoPAC</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">3DWM <break/> tracking software</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Philips</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">General Eletric</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Toshiba Medical<break/> Systems</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Strain longitudinal</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−19,84<break/> (−21,21 a −18,48)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−19,40<break/> (−20,06 a −18,74)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−17,04<break/> (−17,91 a −16,17)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−19,67<break/> (−21,27 a −18,08)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−19,40<break/> (−20,06 a −18,74)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−17,04<break/> (−17,91 a −16,17)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Strain circunferencial</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">23.30<break/> (28,33 a 18,26)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−19,47<break/> (−20,49 a −18,45)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−28,79<break/> (−32,90 a 24,78)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−22,13<break/> (−26,73 a −17,52)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−19,47<break/> (−21,49 a −18,45)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−28,79<break/> (−32,90 a 24,78)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Strain radial</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">55.99<break/> (44,73 a 67,25)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">50,41<break/> (47,96 a −52,87)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">33,17<break/> (24,38 a 41,97)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">59,24<break/> (41,91 a 76,56)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">50,41<break/> (47,96 a 52,87)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">33,17<break/> (−24,38 a 41,97)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Area strain</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−34,14<break/> (−37,21 a −31,07)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−32,50<break/> (−33,87 a −31,14)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−42,07<break/> (−46,28 a −39,86)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−33,54<break/> (−37,29 a −29,79)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−32,50<break/> (−33,87 a −31,14)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−43,07<break/> (−46,28 a −39,86)</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2">
<p><italic>(Intervalo de confiança de 95%). 3DWM: tridimensional wall motion.</italic></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>A aplicação do ST3D tem sido demonstrada em diferentes cenários clínicos, como na cardiotoxicidade induzida por quimioterápicos, na miocardiopatia isquêmica, na doença cardíaca hipertensiva, na insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada, no prognóstico e identificação de rejeição aguda em pacientes transplantados, nas cardiomiopatias hipertrófica, dilatada e infiltrativa, nas valvopatias e após procedimentos como implante percutâneo de prótese valvar aórtica e correção percutânea de insuficiência mitral com MitraClip<sup>®</sup>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
<p>A análise da mecânica ventricular esquerda pelo ST3D permite o cálculo da <italic>area strain</italic> tridimensional. Este índice representa um parâmetro semiautomático e relativamente novo, que tem se demonstrado muito promissor em diferentes condições clínicas, além de apresentar ótima reprodutibilidade, sendo, portanto, consistente e confiável.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Conceitualmente representa a mudança fracional da área de superfície miocárdica durante a sístole e integra a avaliação das fibras circunferenciais e longitudinais nas camadas endocárdica e subendocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Em diferentes contextos clínicos, especialmente naqueles envolvendo o estresse oxidativo celular como um dos mecanismos de injúria miocárdica, como por exemplo na cardiotoxicidade induzida por quimioterápicos, estudos sugerem que a <italic>area strain</italic> tridimensional alterada seja um marcador mais sensível de disfunção ventricular e possa representar dano muito precoce dos cardiomiócitos, com potencial impacto prognóstico nestes cenários.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
<p>Apesar de inúmeros estudos demonstrarem o potencial impacto da tecnologia tridimensional para a análise da mecânica ventricular, trabalhos maiores, mais robustos e com maior poder científico, são necessários para estabelecer o uso rotineiro do ST3D na prática nos laboratórios de ecocardiografia. Além disto, avanços tecnológicos com melhoria na resolução espacial e temporal e uma metodologia padronizada para obter medidas de <italic>strain</italic> tridimensional independentes do fabricante são esperados no futuro para uma aplicação ampla do ST3D não somente em ambientes de pesquisa como também em cenários clínicos específicos (Figura Central).</p>
</sec>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn4"><p><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5"><p><bold>Vinculação Acadêmica</bold></p>
<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><p><bold>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
</back>
</sub-article>
</article>
