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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcic</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Imagem Cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<issn pub-type="ppub">2318-8219</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiolodia (DIC/SBC)</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20260095i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="other">abcimg.20260095i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Cardiac Involvement in Fabry Disease: From Electrocardiography to Recent Advances in Cardiovascular Imaging</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0001-6239-3466</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Volpolini</surname><given-names>Licio Cunha</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>statistical analysis</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0005-7507-6338</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Fischer</surname><given-names>Cláudio Henrique</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8952-8474</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Moisés</surname><given-names>Valdir Ambrósio</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-9309-0026</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Cardinali</surname><given-names>Márcia de Paula</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2383-1793</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Curiati</surname><given-names>Marco Antonio</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2239-0882</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Martins</surname><given-names>Ana Maria</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8258-0584</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Mancuso</surname><given-names>Frederico José</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7302-7448</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Uellendahl</surname><given-names>Marly</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de São Paulo</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">DASA</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">DASA (Diagnósticos da américa), São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>4</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">IGEIM</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">IGEIM (Instituto de Genética e Erros Inatos do Metabolismo), São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address:</label> <bold>Licio Cunha Volpolini</bold> • Programa de Pós-Graduação em Cardiologia, Departamento de Medicina, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP). Rua Botucatu, 740, 5º andar, sala 503. Postal Code: <postal-code>04023-062</postal-code>. São Paulo, SP - Brazil. E-mail: <email>licio_volpolini@yahoo.com.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="coi-statement"><label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label><p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsible for the review:</label><p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>13</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2026</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2026</year></pub-date>
<volume>39</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<elocation-id>e20260095</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>28</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2026</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>28</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2026</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>28</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2026</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Fabry disease is an X-linked lysosomal storage disorder caused by α-galactosidase A deficiency, leading to the progressive accumulation of globotriaosylceramide (Gb3) and globotriaosylsphingosine (lyso-Gb3) in multiple organs. Cardiac involvement is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality, making early recognition of cardiomyopathy fundamental to optimizing treatment and improving prognosis. This review summarizes the current evidence on the role of electrocardiography, conventional and advanced echocardiography, and cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging in the assessment of cardiac involvement in Fabry disease. The main electrocardiographic findings, the structural and functional changes identified by echocardiography, including myocardial deformation by speckle tracking and myocardial work, as well as the contributions of magnetic resonance imaging to tissue characterization through late gadolinium enhancement (LGE), T1 and T2 mapping, extracellular volume (ECV), and feature tracking are discussed. The applications of these methods in the early detection of cardiomyopathy, differential diagnosis, risk stratification, monitoring of disease progression, and evaluation of treatment response are discussed. The integration of different imaging methods allows for a more comprehensive characterization of the pathophysiological mechanisms and stages of Fabry cardiomyopathy, contributing to early diagnosis, clinical decision-making, and longitudinal follow-up of these patients.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Fabry Disease</kwd>
<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
<kwd>Magnetic Resonance Imaging</kwd>
<kwd>Electrocardiography</kwd>
<kwd>Cardiomyopathies</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<funding-statement><bold>Sources of Funding</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="6"/>
<table-count count="0"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="61"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Fabry disease is a hereditary lysosomal storage disorder characterized by the systemic accumulation of glycosphingolipids in multiple organs and tissues.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> The metabolic defect results from deficient activity of α-galactosidase A, a lysosomal enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolytic cleavage of terminal galactose residues from globotriaosylceramide (Gb3).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Deficient α-galactosidase A activity leads to the progressive accumulation of Gb3 and related glycolipids within lysosomes, particularly in vascular endothelial cells, cardiomyocytes, and renal and neural cells, ultimately resulting in the multisystemic manifestations of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> In addition to lysosomal accumulation of Gb3, recent evidence demonstrates that secondary mechanisms, including lyso-Gb3 accumulation, inflammation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and alterations in autophagy, play an important role in the progression of tissue damage and cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>The disease is caused by pathogenic variants in the <italic>GLA gene,</italic> located on the X chromosome, which encodes the lysosomal enzyme α-galactosidase A.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> The estimated prevalence is approximately 1 case per 10,000 live births. However, this frequency varies widely depending on the population studied and the screening strategy employed. Neonatal screening studies and studies of at-risk populations have shown that the disease is significantly more frequent than previously estimated, especially in males and in carriers of late-onset variants of the <italic>GLA gene.</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Symptoms of Fabry disease typically begin in childhood and include neuropathic pain, gastrointestinal dysfunction, hypohidrosis, and intolerance to temperature fluctuations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Although Fabry disease presents with multisystemic manifestations, cardiac involvement represents its main cause of morbidity and mortality, making imaging methods fundamental for early diagnosis, risk stratification, and disease monitoring.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> This review aims to synthesize the current evidence regarding the role of electrocardiography, echocardiography, and cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) in the assessment of cardiac involvement in Fabry disease. The <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">central figure</xref> summarizes the natural history of Fabry cardiomyopathy and the integrated application of multimodal assessment in the different stages of the disease.</p>
<sec>
<title>Pathophysiology</title>
<p>α-Galactosidase A is a lysosomal acid hydrolase responsible for the degradation of Gb3, a glycosphingolipid present in cell membranes. Under physiological conditions, this enzyme catalyzes the removal of the galactose terminal residue from the Gb3 molecule, allowing its degradation inside lysosomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> In Fabry disease, pathogenic variants in the <italic>GLA gene</italic> result in deficiency or absence of α-galactosidase A activity, interrupting the lysosomal degradation of Gb3 and promoting its progressive accumulation in various cell types, particularly endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells, podocytes, renal tubular cells, and cardiomyocytes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Intracellular Gb3 storage begins in intrauterine life in individuals with the classic form of the disease and precedes the appearance of clinical manifestations by many years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f1">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260095-gf01.tif"/>
<p>Schematic representation of the natural history of Fabry cardiomyopathy, from α-galactosidase A deficiency and Gb3/lyso-Gb3 accumulation to myocardial remodeling and its clinical manifestations, highlighting the complementary role of electrocardiography, echocardiography, and CMR imaging in the multimodal assessment of cardiac involvement. CMR: Cardiac Magnetic Resonance; Gb3: globotriaosylceramide; lyso-Gb3: globotriaosylsphingosine; ECV: Extracellular Volume.</p>
</fig>
<p>In addition to lysosomal Gb3 storage, part of this molecule undergoes deacylation, originating globotriaosylsphingosine (lyso-Gb3), a soluble metabolite currently recognized as one of the main mediators of the pathophysiology of the disease. Lyso-Gb3 levels are markedly elevated in Fabry disease and exert several biological effects, including stimulation of cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, fibroblast activation, inflammation, vascular remodeling, and extracellular matrix deposition, thereby contributing to the progression of cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>Recent evidence demonstrates that tissue damage in Fabry disease does not result exclusively from lysosomal storage of glycosphingolipids. The interaction between lyso-Gb3 accumulation, activation of inflammatory pathways, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and alterations in autophagy favors progressive myocardial remodeling, culminating in left ventricular hypertrophy, myocardial fibrosis, diastolic dysfunction, arrhythmias, and heart failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Fabry cardiomyopathy develops gradually and can be understood as a sequence of events beginning with intracellular glycosphingolipid storage, followed by early metabolic and inflammatory changes, myocardial remodeling, left ventricular hypertrophy, fibrosis, and, ultimately, ventricular dysfunction and heart failure. This pathophysiological model helps explain how cardiovascular imaging can detect structural and functional abnormalities at different stages of the disease, often before the appearance of overt clinical manifestations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Clinical Manifestations</title>
<p>Symptoms of the classic form of Fabry disease usually begin in childhood or adolescence and include neuropathic pain (acroparesthesia), angiokeratomas, hypohidrosis, intolerance to heat, cold, and exercise, as well as recurrent gastrointestinal manifestations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Small-fiber neuropathy is one of the most characteristic neurological manifestations of the disease and frequently precedes the involvement of other organs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Ophthalmological findings, such as cornea verticillata, and otological manifestations, including sensorineural hearing loss, tinnitus, and vertigo, are also frequent and may represent early signs of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>Cerebrovascular involvement may occur early and represents a significant cause of morbidity. Ischemic strokes, transient ischemic attacks, and ischemic white matter lesions, frequently identified by brain magnetic resonance imaging, can occur decades earlier than in the general population, especially in men with the classic form of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<p>Renal involvement results from the progressive deposition of Gb3 in podocytes, and tubular/vascular cells, initially manifesting as microalbuminuria and proteinuria, progressing to chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal failure when left untreated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>Although Fabry disease has multisystemic manifestations, cardiac involvement is currently the leading cause of morbidity and mortality. The progressive accumulation of Gb3 and the biological effects of lyso-Gb3 contribute to left ventricular hypertrophy, myocardial remodeling, fibrosis, valvular heart disease, microvascular disease, conduction abnormalities, and arrhythmias, leading to a substantial increase in the risk of heart failure, sudden cardiac death, and cardiovascular events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Electrocardiography</title>
<p>Progressive accumulation of Gb3 in cardiomyocytes, the conduction system, and the microvasculature promotes early electrophysiological changes that can often be detected on the electrocardiogram before the development of left ventricular hypertrophy, making electrocardiogram an important tool for the early recognition of cardiac involvement in Fabry disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
<p>One of the classic electrocardiographic changes in the disease is a shortened PR interval, measured from the onset of the P wave to the onset of the QRS complex. Initially attributed to the presence of accessory pathways, electrophysiological studies have shown that most patients do not present with anomalous atrioventricular bundles, suggesting that this finding results mainly from increased conduction velocity through the atrioventricular node and atrial conduction abnormalities related to glycosphingolipid deposition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
<p>More recent studies have shown that, in the early stages of the disease, especially in the absence of left ventricular hypertrophy, the apparent shortening of the PR interval results predominantly from a reduction in the duration of the P wave, reflecting early atrial involvement before ventricular remodeling is established.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
<p>As cardiomyopathy progresses, left ventricular hypertrophy develops, the main cardiac phenotype of Fabry disease, often mimicking sarcomeric hypertrophic cardiomyopathy or hypertensive cardiomyopathy. The progressive increase in ventricular mass is associated with an increase in QRS complex voltage and the appearance of electrocardiographic criteria for left ventricular hypertrophy, although its sensitivity remains limited.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
<p>In more advanced stages, infiltration of the His-Purkinje system and the development of myocardial fibrosis favor widening of the QRS complex, intraventricular blocks, and atrioventricular conduction disturbances. ST segment and T wave changes reflect repolarization disturbances resulting from myocardial infiltration, fibrosis, and microvascular dysfunction, and are associated with the progression of cardiac involvement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
<p>Even in the absence of left ventricular hypertrophy, patients with Fabry disease may present with prolonged corrected QT interval (QTc), increased QT dispersion and Tpeak-Tend interval dispersion, reflecting greater ventricular electrical heterogeneity and a predisposition to the development of ventricular arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
<p>More recently, Figliozzi <italic>et al.</italic> developed an electrocardiographic score comprising four parameters — the Sokolow–Lyon index, P-wave duration/PR-segment ratio, QRS duration, and QTc — that can estimate the probability of reduced native T1 on CMR imaging, potentially enabling early identification of myocardial glycosphingolipid storage before the development of left ventricular hypertrophy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Conventional Echocardiography</title>
<p>Transthoracic echocardiography is the first-line imaging modality for the cardiac evaluation of Fabry disease because of its wide availability, safety, and ability to characterize cardiac morphology, geometry, and function, as well as to enable longitudinal monitoring of cardiomyopathy progression and response to treatment. However, conventional echocardiographic parameters may remain normal in the early stages, so normal findings do not exclude subclinical cardiac involvement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
<p>Increased thickness of the ventricular walls and left ventricular mass constitutes the most characteristic echocardiographic manifestation of Fabry cardiomyopathy. Left ventricular hypertrophy most commonly presents with a concentric pattern, with a relatively uniform increase in the thickness of the interventricular septum and posterior wall. However, asymmetrical, septal, or apical patterns can also occur, especially in more advanced stages, and may mimic sarcomeric hypertrophic cardiomyopathy or hypertensive heart disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
<p>Increased ventricular thickness is generally earlier and more pronounced in men, although women can also present with fibrosis and significant cardiac involvement, even without an evident increase in thickness.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
<p>Hypertrophy and prominence of the papillary muscles are frequent morphological findings and can significantly contribute to increased left ventricular mass. Although disproportionate papillary muscle enlargement has been proposed as a possible early marker of Fabry cardiomyopathy, this finding is not specific and should be interpreted in conjunction with the clinical context and other imaging parameters.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
<p>The binary aspect of the endocardium was initially described as a marker of Fabry disease, but it has low reproducibility and little specificity, and is not currently recommended as an isolated diagnostic criterion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
<p>Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction (LVEF) generally remains preserved until advanced stages, even in the presence of significant hypertrophy. However, normal ejection fraction values do not exclude myocardial dysfunction, since alterations in longitudinal function, ventricular relaxation, and myocardial mechanics may precede the reduction of overall systolic function. As fibrosis and ventricular remodeling progress, ventricular cavity dilation, reduced ejection fraction, and heart failure may develop.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>Impaired myocardial relaxation can be identified early in Fabry disease, particularly through reduced diastolic mitral annular velocities on tissue Doppler imaging. With the progression of cardiomyopathy, increased ventricular mass, reduced myocardial compliance, and the development of fibrosis contribute to the worsening of diastolic dysfunction, which may result in elevated filling pressures and increased left atrial volume. Conventional mitral flow parameters have limited sensitivity for identifying early involvement and should be interpreted in an integrated manner with mitral annulus velocities by tissue Doppler and myocardial deformation parameters.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
<p>Fabry disease should integrate parameters of mitral flow, tissue Doppler, left atrial volume, and other echocardiographic markers. The 2025 ASE update incorporated new parameters and a revised algorithm for assessing diastolic function and estimating filling pressures. However, further studies are needed to evaluate the applicability and performance of these recommendations specifically in patients with Fabry disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
<p>Valvular involvement results primarily from thickening and infiltration of the leaflets and subvalvular apparatus, most frequently affecting the mitral and aortic valves. Mild valvular regurgitation is relatively common, while hemodynamically significant lesions are uncommon. The right ventricle may also exhibit increased wall thickness and hypertrophy, generally associated with greater severity of left ventricular hypertrophy and more advanced stages of cardiomyopathy. Despite these structural changes, conventional right ventricular systolic function often remains preserved.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
<p>Dilation of the aortic root and ascending aorta has also been described, particularly in men, possibly related to the accumulation of glycosphingolipids in the vascular wall and connective tissue remodeling. Although generally subtle, assessment of aortic dimensions should be included in the routine echocardiographic examination of patients with Fabry disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Speckle Tracking Echocardiography and Myocardial Deformation</title>
<p>Speckle tracking echocardiography allows for the quantitative assessment of myocardial deformation and can identify subclinical functional changes before ejection fraction reduction and, in some patients, before the development of left ventricular hypertrophy. Unlike tissue Doppler imaging, this technique is less dependent on the insonation angle and allows for the analysis of the longitudinal, circumferential, and radial components of ventricular deformation, in addition to the evaluation of atrial and right ventricular function. Pioneering studies with myocardial Doppler demonstrated reduced velocities and deformation indices in patients with Fabry disease, contributing to the recognition of early functional impairment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Subsequently, studies that include speckle tracking broadened the characterization of cardiac mechanics and demonstrated biventricular and atrial changes even in the presence of preserved conventional systolic function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Left Ventricular Longitudinal Strain</title>
<p>Global Longitudinal Strain (GLS) assesses myocardial shortening along the longitudinal axis of the left ventricle and is the most studied strain parameter in Fabry disease. Early myocardial Doppler studies demonstrated impaired longitudinal function despite preserved ejection fraction, while later speckle tracking studies confirmed reduced GLS and regional changes in strain, even in patients without evident left ventricular hypertrophy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
<p>The reduction in longitudinal strain shows a heterogeneous distribution and tends to be more pronounced in the basal segments, particularly in the inferolateral wall, a region characteristically associated with the development of myocardial inflammation and fibrosis. However, the apical segments are not completely spared, unlike the pattern of relative apical sparing frequently observed in cardiac amyloidosis. The regional reduction in strain may be related to the presence of Late Gadolinium Enhancement (LGE) and the progression of myocardial damage, although changes in deformation may also occur before fibrosis is detectable by CMR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Radial and Circumferential Strain of the Left Ventricle</title>
<p>Radial strain represents myocardial thickening towards the center of the ventricular cavity during systole. Initial studies using myocardial Doppler demonstrated a reduction in radial strain, even in women with preserved left ventricular mass, while subsequent analyses by speckle tracking showed impairment of radial strain before the development of left ventricular hypertrophy and independently of the ventricular geometric pattern.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
<p>Circumferential strain represents myocardial shortening around the ventricular circumference and predominantly reflects the mechanics of the mid-wall myocardial fibers. In Fabry disease, regional changes in circumferential strain and a reduction in the physiological gradient from base to apex have been described even in patients without left ventricular hypertrophy. However, findings regarding global circumferential strain are less consistent, and some studies have not demonstrated significant differences compared to healthy individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Left Atrial Strain</title>
<p>Analysis of left atrial strain allows for the evaluation of its reservoir, conduit, and contraction functions, and can identify atrial involvement before the development of significant dilation. Boyd <italic>et al.</italic> demonstrated increased atrial volume and reduced left atrial compliance before the onset of ventricular hypertrophy, providing early evidence of early atrial involvement in Fabry disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
<p>Subsequently, Pichette <italic>et al.</italic> demonstrated, using speckle tracking, impairment of all three phases of left atrial function and improvement in strain parameters following enzyme replacement therapy, representing an important milestone in the assessment of atrial strain in Fabry disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Subsequent studies confirmed the reduced atrial strain and suggested that left atrial dysfunction may reflect a combination of intrinsic atrial myopathy, ventricular diastolic dysfunction, and increased filling pressures, potentially being associated with the development of atrial fibrillation and adverse clinical events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Right Ventricular Strain</title>
<p>Speckle tracking allows the identification of subclinical changes in right ventricular systolic function that may not be recognized by conventional echocardiographic parameters. Initial studies with myocardial Doppler did not demonstrate a significant reduction in the longitudinal strain rate of the right ventricle, possibly due to the characteristics of the studied population and the methodological limitations of the technique.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>With the development of speckle tracking, Lillo <italic>et al.</italic> demonstrated reduced global right ventricular longitudinal strain and right ventricular free wall longitudinal strain in patients with Fabry disease and cardiac involvement, while these parameters remained preserved in patients without evidence of cardiac involvement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Subsequent studies have demonstrated an association between reduced right ventricular free wall strain, greater severity of cardiac phenotype, and the occurrence of cardiovascular events. However, this association did not remain independent after adjustment for global left ventricular longitudinal strain and indexed left atrial volume, suggesting that right ventricular involvement accompanies the severity of cardiomyopathy, with no current evidence of incremental prognostic value in relation to left heart parameters.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Right Atrial Strain</title>
<p>Evaluation of the right atrium constitutes a more recent area of echocardiographic characterization in Fabry disease. Lillo <italic>et al.</italic> demonstrated reduced reservoir and contraction functions of the right atrium, even in patients without left ventricular hypertrophy, suggesting that right atrial involvement may be part of the early cardiac phenotype of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Echocardiogram with Myocardial Work</title>
<p>Myocardial work is a noninvasive echocardiographic approach that integrates left ventricular longitudinal strain with estimated systolic blood pressure through pressure-strain loop analysis, allowing assessment of ventricular mechanics while accounting for the influence of afterload. In Fabry disease, recent studies have demonstrated alterations in global and regional myocardial work indices, with differences related to the presence of left ventricular hypertrophy and the stage of cardiac involvement. Regional analysis also revealed a heterogeneous distribution of myocardial work, adding information to the evaluation by GLS (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> Although promising, myocardial work still needs validation in multicenter studies before its routine incorporation.</p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><title>Assessment of left ventricular mechanics via advanced echocardiography in a patient with Fabry disease. On the left, a polar map of systolic longitudinal strain, demonstrating a GLS of −21%. On the right, a polar map of myocardial work, with a global work index (GWI) of 2479 mmHg% and a global myocardial work efficiency (GWE) of 97%. Image from the authors’ collection.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260095-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>CMR Imaging</title>
<p>CMR Imaging plays a central role in the evaluation of Fabry cardiomyopathy, allowing for comprehensive characterization of ventricular morphology, volumes, and function, as well as non-invasive assessment of myocardial tissue composition. Its high spatial resolution and multiparametric characterization capabilities enable the identification of different components of the pathological process, including intracellular storage of glycosphingolipids, hypertrophy, inflammation, edema, and fibrosis, contributing to differential diagnosis, disease staging, prognostic stratification, and therapeutic monitoring.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> The most common morphological manifestation is left ventricular hypertrophy, usually with a concentric pattern, although asymmetric patterns and other phenotypic variants may also occur. CMR is the reference standard for quantifying ventricular volumes, myocardial mass, and biventricular function, allowing more precise characterization of the distribution of hypertrophy and identification of structural abnormalities that may not be adequately detected by echocardiography.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
<p>LGE enables the identification of areas of extracellular space expansion related to focal myocardial fibrosis. The classic pattern of Fabry cardiomyopathy consists of mesocardial or subepicardial LGE, predominantly located in the basal and mid- inferolateral wall segments, generally with preservation of the subendocardium (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 2A</xref>). This pattern was initially characterized by Moon <italic>et al</italic>., and constitutes an important marker of advanced heart disease, although other distributions may be observed, especially in patients with more extensive myocardial remodeling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption><title>Myocardial tissue characterization via CMR imaging in patients with Fabry disease. (A) Short-axis LGE image demonstrating mid-wall enhancement in the inferolateral wall of the left ventricle, consistent with myocardial fibrosis. (B) Short-axis native T1 map of the myocardium, used for the quantitative assessment of myocardial tissue properties. Images from the authors’ collection.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260095-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Fabry disease was subsequently demonstrated by Moon <italic>et al.,</italic> who directly compared CMR images with macroscopic and histological analysis of the heart. Regions with LGE showed extensive collagen deposition, confirming that late enhancement corresponds to focal myocardial fibrosis and not to intracellular storage of glycosphingolipids.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> In the study, the LGE-enhanced segments showed approximately 62% collagen, compared to 4% in the non-enhanced segments.</p>
<p>The presence and extent of LGE are associated with the progression of cardiomyopathy, a higher risk of ventricular arrhythmias, and adverse cardiovascular events. Myocardial fibrosis is also an important determinant of treatment response, as patients with established fibrosis have less potential for regression of hypertrophy and functional recovery after initiation of specific therapy. This finding reinforces the importance of diagnosis and treatment before the development of irreversible myocardial damage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>T1 Mapping</title>
<p>Native T1 mapping represented one of the major advances in the evaluation of Fabry cardiomyopathy, allowing for quantitative characterization of the myocardium without the need for contrast administration (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 2B</xref>). Unlike most cardiomyopathies associated with ventricular hypertrophy, in which native T1 is usually elevated, Fabry disease is typically characterized by reduced T1 values, attributed to the intracellular storage of glycosphingolipids.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
<p>The pioneering studies by Sado et al. and Thompson <italic>et al.</italic> demonstrated that a reduction in native T1 has a high capacity to differentiate Fabry disease from other causes of left ventricular hypertrophy and may be present even before the development of detectable hypertrophy or fibrosis. Thus, native T1 constitutes a sensitive marker of early myocardial storage and may allow the identification of cardiac involvement in subclinical phases of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
<p>However, normal T1 values do not exclude cardiac involvement. In regions with inflammation, edema, and fibrosis, particularly in the inferolateral wall, the increased water content and extracellular matrix can elevate T1 and counterbalance the reducing effect of intracellular storage, producing apparently normal values, a phenomenon called T1 pseudonormalization. In advanced stages, T1 may even present elevated values in regions with extensive fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
<p>T1 values should be interpreted according to the equipment, the technique used, and local reference values.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>T2 Mapping and Myocardial Inflammation</title>
<p>T2 mapping allows for the quantitative assessment of myocardial fluid content and constitutes a non-invasive marker of edema and inflammation. In Fabry disease, elevated T2 values are observed predominantly in the inferolateral wall, frequently in association with areas of LGE, suggesting the presence of chronic inflammatory activity superimposed on glycosphingolipid storage and myocardial fibrosis.</p>
<p>Regional T2 elevation is associated with the presence of LGE, elevated troponin, and greater severity of cardiomyopathy, and should be interpreted in conjunction with other CMR imaging parameters.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Extracellular Volume</title>
<p>Myocardial Extracellular Volume (ECV), calculated from T1 values obtained before and after contrast administration, together with hematocrit, allows estimation of the fraction of myocardium occupied by extracellular space. Unlike native T1, which in Fabry disease is typically reduced due to intracellular storage of glycosphingolipids, ECV generally remains within normal limits in the initial phases, reflecting the predominantly intracellular nature of the storage process.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
<p>With the progression of cardiomyopathy and the development of myocardial injury, inflammation, and fibrosis, expansion of the extracellular space and regional or global increase in the ECV may occur. These changes are observed mainly in regions with LGE, particularly in the inferolateral wall, and may contribute to characterizing the extent of interstitial remodeling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
<p>ECV should be interpreted in conjunction with T1, T2, and LGE, as normal values do not exclude early involvement and may coexist with regional abnormalities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Strain by CMR Imaging</title>
<p>Myocardial deformation analysis by feature tracking in CMR imaging allows quantification of the longitudinal, circumferential, and radial components of strain from conventional cine sequences, without the need for additional acquisitions. In Fabry disease, alterations in myocardial deformation can be identified even in the presence of preserved ejection fraction and are associated with the severity of cardiac involvement. Zhao <italic>et al.</italic> demonstrated a reduction in longitudinal and radial strain of the left ventricle, with progressive impairment according to the stage of cardiomyopathy; however, circumferential strain showed less uniform behavior. Despite its potential for functional characterization and monitoring of disease progression, differences between programs, analysis methods, and reference values still limit its routine clinical application, and longitudinal studies are needed to define its prognostic value and its usefulness for therapeutic monitoring.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>The integration of electrocardiography, echocardiography, and CMR enables early diagnosis, risk stratification, and longitudinal monitoring of Fabry cardiomyopathy. Emerging techniques, including myocardial work and CMR feature tracking, show promising potential but require further validation before their routine clinical implementation.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1"><label>Sources of Funding</label><p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><label>Study Association</label><p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4"><label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</label><p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Universidade Federal de São Paulo under the protocol number 51118615.6.0000.5505. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5"><label>Use of Artificial Intelligence</label><p>During the preparation of this work, the authors used artificial intelligence to improve the text and for translation purposes, and not for the creation of the content itself. After using this tool/service, the authors reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the content of the published article.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
<title>Availability of Research Data</title>
<p>The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
</sec>
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<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8952-8474</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Moisés</surname><given-names>Valdir Ambrósio</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-9309-0026</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Cardinali</surname><given-names>Márcia de Paula</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2383-1793</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Curiati</surname><given-names>Marco Antonio</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8"><sup>4</sup></xref>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2239-0882</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Martins</surname><given-names>Ana Maria</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8"><sup>4</sup></xref>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8258-0584</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Mancuso</surname><given-names>Frederico José</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7302-7448</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Uellendahl</surname><given-names>Marly</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff6">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">DASA (Diagnósticos da américa), São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff7">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff8">
<label>4</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">IGEIM (Instituto de Genética e Erros Inatos do Metabolismo), São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondência:</label> <bold>Licio Cunha Volpolini</bold> • Programa de Pós-Graduação em Cardiologia, Departamento de Medicina, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP). Rua Botucatu, 740, 5º andar, sala 503. CEP: <postal-code>04023-062</postal-code>. São Paulo, SP - Brasil. E-mail: <email>licio_volpolini@yahoo.com.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="coi-statement"><label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label><p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label><p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A doença de Fabry é um distúrbio de armazenamento lisossômico ligada ao cromossomo X causada pela deficiência da α-galactosidase A, levando ao acúmulo progressivo de globotriaosilceramida (Gb3) e globotriaosilesfingosina (lyso-Gb3) em múltiplos órgãos. O envolvimento cardíaco representa a principal causa de morbidade e mortalidade, tornando o reconhecimento precoce da cardiomiopatia fundamental para otimizar o tratamento e melhorar o prognóstico. Esta revisão sintetiza as evidências atuais sobre o papel da eletrocardiografia, da ecocardiografia convencional e avançada e da ressonância magnética cardíaca (RMC) na avaliação do envolvimento cardíaco na doença de Fabry. São abordados os principais achados eletrocardiográficos, as alterações estruturais e funcionais identificadas pela ecocardiografia, incluindo deformação miocárdica por <italic>speckle tracking</italic> e trabalho miocárdico, bem como as contribuições da ressonância magnética para a caracterização tecidual por meio do realce tardio pelo gadolínio (<italic>late gadolinium enhancement</italic> — LGE), mapeamentos T1 e T2, volume extracelular (ECV) e <italic>feature tracking</italic>. São discutidas as aplicações desses métodos na detecção precoce da cardiomiopatia, no diagnóstico diferencial, na estratificação de risco, na monitorização da progressão da doença e na avaliação da resposta ao tratamento. A integração dos diferentes métodos de imagem permite a caracterização mais abrangente dos mecanismos fisiopatológicos e dos estágios da cardiomiopatia de Fabry, contribuindo para o diagnóstico precoce, a tomada de decisão clínica e o acompanhamento longitudinal desses pacientes.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Doença de Fabry</kwd>
<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
<kwd>Imagem por Ressonância Magnética</kwd>
<kwd>Eletrocardiografia</kwd>
<kwd>Cardiomiopatias</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<funding-statement><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold> O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>A doença de Fabry é uma afecção hereditária de armazenamento lisossômico caracterizada pela deposição sistêmica de glicoesfingolipídios em múltiplos órgãos e tecidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> O defeito metabólico resulta da atividade deficiente da enzima α-galactosidase A, que catalisa a clivagem hidrolítica da galactose terminal da globotriaosilceramida (Gb3).¹ A deficiência na atividade da α-galactosidase A leva ao acúmulo progressivo de Gb3 e glicolipídios relacionados nos lisossomos, particularmente no endotélio vascular, cardiomiócitos, células renais e neurais, produzindo, em última instância, as manifestações multissistêmicas da doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Além do acúmulo lisossomal de Gb3, evidências recentes demonstram que mecanismos secundários, incluindo acúmulo de lyso-Gb3, inflamação, estresse oxidativo, disfunção mitocondrial e alterações da autofagia, desempenham papel importante na progressão do dano tecidual e da cardiomiopatia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>A doença é causada por variantes patogênicas no gene <italic>GLA</italic>, localizado no cromossomo X, que codifica a enzima lisossomal α-galactosidase A.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> A prevalência estimada é de aproximadamente 1 caso para cada 10.000 nascidos vivos. Entretanto, essa frequência varia amplamente conforme a população estudada e a estratégia de rastreamento empregada. Estudos de triagem neonatal e de populações de risco demonstraram que a condição é significativamente mais frequente do que previamente estimado, especialmente em indivíduos do sexo masculino e em portadores de variantes de início tardio do gene <italic>GLA.</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Os sintomas da doença de Fabry geralmente têm início na infância e incluem dor neuropática, disfunção gastrointestinal, hipoidrose e intolerância às variações térmicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Embora a doença de Fabry apresente manifestações multissistêmicas, o envolvimento cardíaco representa sua principal causa de morbidade e mortalidade, o que torna os métodos de imagem fundamentais para o diagnóstico precoce, a estratificação de risco e o monitoramento da doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Esta revisão tem como objetivo sintetizar as evidências atuais sobre o papel da eletrocardiografia, da ecocardiografia e da ressonância magnética cardíaca (RMC) na avaliação do envolvimento cardíaco da doença de Fabry. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura Central</xref> resume a história natural da cardiomiopatia de Fabry e a aplicação integrada da avaliação multimodal nos diferentes estágios da doença.</p>
<sec>
<title>Fisiopatologia</title>
<p>A α-galactosidase A é uma hidrolase ácida lisossomal responsável pela degradação da Gb3, um glicoesfingolipídio presente nas membranas celulares. Em condições fisiológicas, essa enzima catalisa a remoção do resíduo terminal de galactose da molécula de Gb3, permitindo sua degradação no interior dos lisossomos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Na doença de Fabry, variantes patogênicas no gene <italic>GLA</italic> resultam em deficiência ou ausência da atividade da α-galactosidase A, interrompendo a degradação lisossomal da Gb3 e promovendo seu acúmulo progressivo em diversos tipos celulares, particularmente células endoteliais, células musculares lisas vasculares, podócitos, células tubulares renais e cardiomiócitos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> O armazenamento intracelular de Gb3 inicia-se ainda na vida intrauterina em indivíduos com a forma clássica da doença e precede em muitos anos o aparecimento das manifestações clínicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f4">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260095-gf01-pt.tif"/>
<p>Representação esquemática da história natural da cardiomiopatia de Fabry, desde a deficiência da α-galactosidase A e o acúmulo de Gb3/lyso-Gb3 até o remodelamento miocárdico e suas manifestações clínicas, destacando o papel complementar da eletrocardiografia, da ecocardiografia e da RMC na avaliação multimodal do envolvimento cardíaco.</p>
</fig>
<p>Além do armazenamento lisossomal de Gb3, parte dessa molécula sofre desacilação, originando a globotriaosilesfingosina (lyso-Gb3), um metabólito solúvel atualmente reconhecido como um dos principais mediadores da fisiopatologia da doença. O lyso-Gb3 encontra-se significativamente elevado na doença de Fabry e exerce importantes efeitos biológicos, estimulando hipertrofia dos cardiomiócitos, ativação de fibroblastos, inflamação, remodelamento vascular e deposição de matriz extracelular, contribuindo diretamente para a progressão da cardiomiopatia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>Evidências recentes demonstram que o dano tecidual na doença de Fabry não decorre exclusivamente do armazenamento lisossomal de glicoesfingolipídios. A interação entre o acúmulo de lyso-Gb3, a ativação de vias inflamatórias, o estresse oxidativo, a disfunção mitocondrial e alterações da autofagia favorece o remodelamento miocárdico progressivo, culminando em hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, fibrose miocárdica, disfunção diastólica, arritmias e insuficiência cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>A evolução da cardiomiopatia de Fabry ocorre de forma progressiva e pode ser compreendida como uma sequência de eventos iniciada pelo armazenamento intracelular de glicoesfingolipídios, seguida por alterações metabólicas e inflamatórias precoces, remodelamento miocárdico, hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, fibrose e, finalmente, disfunção ventricular e insuficiência cardíaca. Esse modelo fisiopatológico explica a capacidade dos métodos de imagem cardiovascular de detectar alterações estruturais e funcionais em diferentes estágios da doença, frequentemente antes do aparecimento das manifestações clínicas evidentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Manifestações Clínicas</title>
<p>Os sintomas da forma clássica da doença de Fabry geralmente têm início na infância ou adolescência e incluem dor neuropática (acroparestesias), angioqueratomas, hipoidrose, intolerância ao calor, ao frio e ao exercício, além de manifestações gastrointestinais recorrentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> A neuropatia de fibras finas constitui uma das manifestações neurológicas mais características da doença e frequentemente precede o envolvimento de outros órgãos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Alterações oftalmológicas, como córnea verticilata, e manifestações otológicas, incluindo perda auditiva neurossensorial, zumbido e vertigem, também são frequentes e podem representar sinais precoces da doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>O comprometimento cerebrovascular ocorre de forma precoce e representa importante causa de morbidade. Acidentes vasculares cerebrais isquêmicos, ataques isquêmicos transitórios e lesões isquêmicas da substância branca, frequentemente identificadas por ressonância magnética cerebral, podem ocorrer décadas antes da população geral, principalmente em homens com a forma clássica da doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<p>O envolvimento renal resulta do depósito progressivo de Gb3 em podócitos e células tubulares/vasculares, manifestando-se inicialmente por microalbuminúria e proteinúria, com progressão para doença renal crônica e insuficiência renal terminal quando não tratada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>Embora a doença de Fabry apresente manifestações multissistêmicas, o envolvimento cardíaco constitui atualmente a principal causa de morbidade e mortalidade. O depósito progressivo de Gb3 e os efeitos biológicos do lyso-Gb3 promovem hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, remodelamento miocárdico, fibrose, valvopatias, doença microvascular, distúrbios de condução e arritmias, determinando aumento expressivo do risco de insuficiência cardíaca, morte súbita e eventos cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Eletrocardiograma</title>
<p>O depósito progressivo de Gb3 nos cardiomiócitos, no sistema de condução e na microvasculatura promove alterações eletrofisiológicas precoces, frequentemente detectáveis no eletrocardiograma antes do desenvolvimento da hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, tornando o eletrocardiograma uma importante ferramenta para o reconhecimento precoce do envolvimento cardíaco na doença de Fabry.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
<p>Uma das alterações eletrocardiográficas clássicas da doença é o encurtamento do intervalo PR, medido do início da onda P ao início do complexo QRS. Inicialmente atribuído à presença de vias acessórias, estudos eletrofisiológicos demonstraram que a maioria dos pacientes não apresenta feixes atrioventriculares anômalos, sugerindo que esse achado decorra principalmente do aumento da velocidade de condução pelo nó atrioventricular e de alterações da condução atrial relacionadas ao depósito de glicoesfingolipídios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
<p>Estudos mais recentes demonstraram que, nas fases iniciais da doença, especialmente na ausência de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, o aparente encurtamento do intervalo PR resulta predominantemente da redução da duração da onda P, refletindo envolvimento atrial precoce antes do remodelamento ventricular estabelecido.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
<p>À medida que ocorre progressão da cardiomiopatia, desenvolve-se hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, o principal fenótipo cardíaco da doença de Fabry, frequentemente simulando cardiomiopatia hipertrófica sarcomérica ou cardiopatia hipertensiva. O aumento progressivo da massa ventricular está associado ao incremento da voltagem do complexo QRS e ao aparecimento de critérios eletrocardiográficos para hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, embora sua sensibilidade permaneça limitada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
<p>Nos estágios mais avançados, a infiltração do sistema His-Purkinje e o desenvolvimento de fibrose miocárdica favorecem o alargamento do complexo QRS, bloqueios intraventriculares e distúrbios de condução atrioventricular. Alterações do segmento ST e da onda T refletem distúrbios da repolarização decorrentes da infiltração miocárdica, da fibrose e da disfunção microvascular, estando associadas à progressão do envolvimento cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
<p>Mesmo na ausência de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, pacientes com doença de Fabry podem apresentar prolongamento do intervalo QT corrigido (QTc), aumento da dispersão do QT e da dispersão do intervalo Tpeak-Tend, refletindo maior heterogeneidade elétrica ventricular e predisposição ao desenvolvimento de arritmias ventriculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
<p>Recentemente, Figliozzi <italic>et al</italic>. desenvolveram um escore eletrocardiográfico composto por quatro parâmetros (índice de Sokolow-Lyon, relação duração da onda P/segmento PR, duração do QRS e intervalo QT), capaz de estimar a probabilidade de redução do T1 nativo na RMC, permitindo identificar precocemente o armazenamento miocárdico de glicoesfingolipídios antes mesmo do desenvolvimento da hipertrofia ventricular esquerda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Ecocardiografia Convencional</title>
<p>A ecocardiografia transtorácica constitui o método de imagem de primeira linha para a avaliação cardíaca na doença de Fabry, devido à sua ampla disponibilidade, segurança e capacidade de caracterizar a morfologia, a geometria e a função cardíaca, além de permitir o acompanhamento longitudinal da progressão da cardiomiopatia e da resposta ao tratamento. Entretanto, os parâmetros ecocardiográficos convencionais podem permanecer normais nas fases iniciais, de modo que achados normais não excluem o envolvimento cardíaco subclínico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
<p>O espessamento das paredes e o aumento da massa do ventrículo esquerdo constitui a manifestação ecocardiográfica mais característica da cardiomiopatia de Fabry. A hipertrofia ventricular esquerda apresenta mais frequentemente padrão concêntrico, com aumento relativamente uniforme da espessura do septo interventricular e da parede posterior. Entretanto, padrões assimétricos, septais ou apicais também podem ocorrer, especialmente em estágios mais avançados, podendo mimetizar cardiomiopatia hipertrófica sarcomérica ou cardiopatia hipertensiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
<p>O aumento da espessura ventricular é geralmente mais precoce e acentuada em homens, embora mulheres também possam apresentar fibrose e envolvimento cardíaco significativo, mesmo sem aumento evidente da espessura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
<p>A hipertrofia e a proeminência dos músculos papilares constituem achados morfológicos frequentes e podem contribuir de maneira relevante para o aumento da massa ventricular esquerda. Embora o aumento desproporcional dos músculos papilares tenha sido proposto como possível marcador precoce da cardiomiopatia de Fabry, esse achado não é específico e deve ser interpretado em conjunto com o contexto clínico e os demais parâmetros de imagem.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
<p>O aspecto binário do endocárdio foi inicialmente descrito como marcador da doença de Fabry, porém apresenta baixa reprodutibilidade e pouca especificidade, não sendo atualmente recomendado como critério diagnóstico isolado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
<p>A fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo geralmente permanece preservada até estágios avançados, mesmo na presença de hipertrofia significativa. Entretanto, valores normais da fração de ejeção não excluem disfunção miocárdica, uma vez que alterações da função longitudinal, do relaxamento ventricular e da mecânica miocárdica podem preceder a redução da função sistólica global. Com a progressão da fibrose e do remodelamento ventricular, podem ocorrer dilatação da cavidade, redução da fração de ejeção e desenvolvimento de insuficiência cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>Alterações do relaxamento miocárdico podem ser identificadas precocemente na doença de Fabry, particularmente pela redução das velocidades diastólicas do anel mitral ao Doppler tecidual. Com a progressão da cardiomiopatia, o aumento da massa ventricular, a redução da complacência miocárdica e o desenvolvimento de fibrose contribuem para o agravamento da disfunção diastólica, podendo resultar em elevação das pressões de enchimento e aumento do volume do átrio esquerdo. Os parâmetros convencionais do fluxo mitral apresentam sensibilidade limitada para a identificação do envolvimento precoce e devem ser interpretados de forma integrada com as velocidades do anel mitral pelo Doppler tecidual e os parâmetros de deformação miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
<p>A avaliação da função diastólica na doença de Fabry deve integrar parâmetros do fluxo mitral, Doppler tecidual, volume atrial esquerdo e outros marcadores ecocardiográficos. A atualização da ASE de 2025 incorporou novos parâmetros e um algoritmo revisado para a avaliação da função diastólica e a estimativa das pressões de enchimento. Entretanto, são necessários novos estudos para avaliar a aplicabilidade e o desempenho dessas recomendações especificamente em pacientes com doença de Fabry.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
<p>O envolvimento valvar decorre principalmente do espessamento e da infiltração dos folhetos e do aparelho subvalvar, afetando mais frequentemente as valvas mitral e aórtica. Regurgitações valvares leves são relativamente comuns, enquanto lesões hemodinamicamente significativas são incomuns. O ventrículo direito também pode apresentar aumento da espessura parietal e hipertrofia, geralmente associados à maior gravidade da hipertrofia ventricular esquerda e a estágios mais avançados da cardiomiopatia. Apesar dessas alterações estruturais, a função sistólica convencional do ventrículo direito frequentemente permanece preservada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
<p>A dilatação da raiz da aorta e da aorta ascendente também foi descrita, particularmente em homens, possivelmente relacionada ao acúmulo de glicoesfingolipídios na parede vascular e ao remodelamento do tecido conjuntivo. Embora geralmente discreta, a avaliação das dimensões da aorta deve integrar o exame ecocardiográfico sistemático dos pacientes com doença de Fabry.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Ecocardiografia por Speckle Tracking e Deformação Miocárdica</title>
<p>A ecocardiografia por <italic>speckle tracking</italic> permite a avaliação quantitativa da deformação miocárdica e pode identificar alterações funcionais subclínicas antes da redução da fração de ejeção e, em alguns pacientes, antes do desenvolvimento de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda. Diferentemente do Doppler tecidual, a técnica apresenta menor dependência do ângulo de insonação e possibilita a análise dos componentes longitudinal, circunferencial e radial da deformação ventricular, além da avaliação da função atrial e do ventrículo direito. Estudos pioneiros com Doppler miocárdico demonstraram redução das velocidades e dos índices de deformação em pacientes com doença de Fabry, contribuindo para o reconhecimento do comprometimento funcional precoce.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Posteriormente, estudos com <italic>speckle tracking</italic> ampliaram a caracterização da mecânica cardíaca e demonstraram alterações biventriculares e atriais mesmo na presença de função sistólica convencional preservada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title><italic>Strain</italic> Longitudinal do Ventrículo Esquerdo</title>
<p>O <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal global (SLG) avalia o encurtamento miocárdico ao longo do eixo longitudinal do ventrículo esquerdo e constitui o parâmetro de deformação mais estudado na doença de Fabry. Os primeiros estudos com Doppler miocárdico demonstraram comprometimento da função longitudinal apesar da preservação da fração de ejeção, enquanto estudos posteriores por <italic>speckle tracking</italic> confirmaram redução do SLG e alterações regionais da deformação, inclusive em pacientes sem hipertrofia ventricular esquerda evidente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
<p>A redução do <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal apresenta distribuição heterogênea e tende a ser mais pronunciada nos segmentos basais, particularmente na parede inferolateral, região caracteristicamente associada ao desenvolvimento de inflamação e fibrose miocárdica. Entretanto, os segmentos apicais não são completamente preservados, diferentemente do padrão de preservação apical relativa frequentemente observado na amiloidose cardíaca. A redução regional do <italic>strain</italic> pode relacionar-se à presença de LGE e à progressão do dano miocárdico, embora alterações da deformação também possam ocorrer antes da fibrose detectável pela RMC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title><italic>Strain</italic> Radial e Circunferencial do Ventrículo Esquerdo</title>
<p>O <italic>strain</italic> radial representa o espessamento miocárdico em direção ao centro da cavidade ventricular durante a sístole. Estudos iniciais com Doppler miocárdico demonstraram redução da deformação radial, inclusive em mulheres com massa ventricular esquerda preservada, enquanto análises posteriores por <italic>speckle tracking</italic> evidenciaram comprometimento do <italic>strain</italic> radial antes do desenvolvimento de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda e independentemente do padrão geométrico ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
<p>O <italic>strain</italic> circunferencial representa o encurtamento miocárdico ao redor da circunferência ventricular e reflete predominantemente a mecânica das fibras das camadas médias da parede. Na doença de Fabry, alterações regionais do <italic>strain</italic> circunferencial e redução do gradiente fisiológico da base para o ápice foram descritas mesmo em pacientes sem hipertrofia ventricular esquerda. Entretanto, os resultados referentes ao <italic>strain</italic> circunferencial global são menos consistentes, e alguns estudos não demonstraram diferenças significativas em comparação com indivíduos saudáveis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title><italic>Strain</italic> do Átrio Esquerdo</title>
<p>A análise do <italic>strain</italic> do átrio esquerdo permite avaliar suas funções de reservatório, conduto e contração e pode identificar comprometimento atrial antes do desenvolvimento de dilatação significativa. Boyd <italic>et al.</italic> demonstraram aumento do volume atrial e redução da complacência do átrio esquerdo antes do aparecimento da hipertrofia ventricular, fornecendo evidências iniciais de envolvimento atrial precoce na doença de Fabry.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
<p>Posteriormente, Pichette <italic>et al.</italic> demonstraram, por <italic>speckle tracking</italic>, comprometimento das três fases da função atrial esquerda e melhora dos parâmetros de deformação após terapia de reposição enzimática, estabelecendo um dos principais marcos da avaliação do <italic>strain</italic> atrial na doença de Fabry.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Estudos subsequentes confirmaram a redução do <italic>strain</italic> atrial e sugeriram que a disfunção do átrio esquerdo pode refletir uma combinação de miopatia atrial intrínseca, disfunção diastólica ventricular e aumento das pressões de enchimento, estando potencialmente associada ao desenvolvimento de fibrilação atrial e a eventos clínicos adversos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title><italic>Strain</italic> do Ventrículo Direito</title>
<p>O <italic>speckle tracking</italic> permite identificar alterações subclínicas da função sistólica do ventrículo direito que podem não ser reconhecidas pelos parâmetros ecocardiográficos convencionais. Estudos iniciais com Doppler miocárdico não demonstraram redução significativa do <italic>strain</italic> rate longitudinal do ventrículo direito, possivelmente em razão das características da população estudada e das limitações metodológicas da técnica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>Com o desenvolvimento do <italic>speckle tracking</italic>, Lillo <italic>et al</italic>. demonstraram redução do SLG do ventrículo direito e do <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal da parede livre do ventrículo direito em pacientes com doença de Fabry e envolvimento cardíaco, enquanto esses parâmetros permaneceram preservados nos pacientes sem evidências de envolvimento cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Estudos posteriores demonstraram associação entre a redução do <italic>strain</italic> da parede livre do ventrículo direito, maior gravidade do fenótipo cardíaco e ocorrência de eventos cardiovasculares. Entretanto, essa associação não permaneceu independente após o ajuste pelo SLG do ventrículo esquerdo e pelo volume indexado do átrio esquerdo, sugerindo que o comprometimento do ventrículo direito acompanha a gravidade da cardiomiopatia, sem evidência atual de valor prognóstico incremental em relação aos parâmetros do coração esquerdo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title><italic>Strain</italic> do átrio direito</title>
<p>A avaliação do átrio direito constitui uma área mais recente da caracterização ecocardiográfica na doença de Fabry. Lillo <italic>et al</italic>. demonstraram redução das funções de reservatório e contração do átrio direito, inclusive em pacientes sem hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, sugerindo que o comprometimento atrial direito pode integrar o fenótipo cardíaco precoce da doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Ecocardiograma com Trabalho Miocárdico</title>
<p>O trabalho miocárdico constitui uma abordagem ecocardiográfica não invasiva que integra o <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal do ventrículo esquerdo à pressão arterial sistólica estimada, por meio da análise das curvas pressão–<italic>strain</italic>, permitindo avaliar a mecânica ventricular considerando a influência da pós-carga. Na doença de Fabry, estudos recentes demonstraram alterações dos índices globais e regionais de trabalho miocárdico, com diferenças relacionadas à presença de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda e ao estágio do envolvimento cardíaco. A análise regional também evidenciou distribuição heterogênea do trabalho miocárdico, acrescentando informações à avaliação pelo SLG (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> Embora promissor, o trabalho miocárdico ainda necessita de validação em estudos multicêntricos antes de sua incorporação rotineira.</p>
<fig id="f5">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption><title>Avaliação da mecânica ventricular esquerda por ecocardiografia avançada em paciente com doença de Fabry. À esquerda, mapa polar do strain longitudinal sistólico, demonstrando SLG (SLG) de −21. À direita, mapa polar do trabalho miocárdico, com índice de trabalho global (GWI) de 2479 mmHg% e eficiência global do trabalho miocárdico (GWE) de 97%. Imagem do acervo dos autores.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260095-gf02-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>RMC</title>
<p>A RMC ocupa papel central na avaliação da cardiomiopatia de Fabry, permitindo a caracterização abrangente da morfologia, dos volumes e da função ventricular, além da avaliação não invasiva da composição tecidual do miocárdio. Sua elevada resolução espacial e capacidade de caracterização multiparamétrica possibilitam a identificação de diferentes componentes do processo patológico, incluindo armazenamento intracelular de glicoesfingolipídios, hipertrofia, inflamação, edema e fibrose, contribuindo para o diagnóstico diferencial, o estadiamento da doença, a estratificação prognóstica e a monitorização terapêutica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> A manifestação morfológica mais frequente é a hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, geralmente concêntrica, embora padrões assimétricos e outras variantes fenotípicas também possam ocorrer. A RMC constitui o método de referência para a quantificação dos volumes ventriculares, da massa miocárdica e da função biventricular, permitindo a caracterização mais precisa da distribuição da hipertrofia e identificação de alterações estruturais que podem não ser adequadamente reconhecidas pela ecocardiografia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
<p>O realce tardio pelo gadolínio (<italic>late gadolinium enhancement</italic> — LGE) permite a identificação de áreas de expansão do espaço extracelular relacionadas à fibrose miocárdica focal. O padrão clássico da cardiomiopatia de Fabry consiste em LGE mesocárdico ou subepicárdico, predominantemente localizado nos segmentos basal e médio da parede inferolateral, geralmente com preservação do subendocárdio (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2A</xref>). Esse padrão foi inicialmente caracterizado por Moon <italic>et al.</italic> e constitui um importante marcador de doença cardíaca avançada, embora outras distribuições possam ser observadas, especialmente em pacientes com remodelamento miocárdico mais extenso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f6">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption><title>Caracterização tecidual miocárdica pela RMC em pacientes com doença de Fabry. (A) Imagem de LGE em eixo curto, demonstrando realce mesocárdico na parede inferolateral do ventrículo esquerdo, compatível com fibrose miocárdica. (B) Mapeamento T1 nativo do miocárdio em eixo curto, utilizado para a avaliação quantitativa das propriedades teciduais miocárdicas. Imagens do acervo dos autores.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260095-gf03-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>A base histopatológica do LGE na doença de Fabry foi posteriormente demonstrada por Moon <italic>et al.</italic> que compararam diretamente as imagens de RMC com a análise macroscópica e histológica do coração. As regiões com LGE apresentaram extensa deposição de colágeno, confirmando que o realce tardio corresponde à fibrose miocárdica focal e não ao armazenamento intracelular de glicoesfingolipídios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> No estudo, os segmentos com LGE apresentaram aproximadamente 62% de colágeno, em comparação com 4% nos segmentos sem realce.</p>
<p>A presença e a extensão do LGE estão associadas à progressão da cardiomiopatia, maior risco de arritmias ventriculares e eventos cardiovasculares adversos. A fibrose miocárdica também constitui um importante determinante da resposta ao tratamento, uma vez que pacientes com fibrose estabelecida apresentam menor potencial de regressão da hipertrofia e recuperação funcional após o início da terapia específica, reforçando a importância do diagnóstico e do tratamento antes do desenvolvimento de dano miocárdico irreversível.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Mapeamento T1</title>
<p>O mapeamento T1 nativo representou um dos principais avanços na avaliação da cardiomiopatia de Fabry, permitindo a caracterização quantitativa do miocárdio sem a necessidade da administração de contraste (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2B</xref>). Diferentemente da maioria das cardiomiopatias associadas à hipertrofia ventricular, nas quais o T1 nativo geralmente está aumentado, a doença de Fabry caracteriza-se tipicamente pela redução dos valores de T1, atribuída ao armazenamento intracelular de glicoesfingolipídios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
<p>Os estudos pioneiros de Sado et al. e Thompson <italic>et al.</italic> demonstraram que a redução do T1 nativo apresenta elevada capacidade para diferenciar a doença de Fabry de outras causas de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda e pode estar presente mesmo antes do desenvolvimento de hipertrofia ou fibrose detectável. Dessa forma, o T1 nativo constitui um marcador sensível do armazenamento miocárdico precoce e pode permitir a identificação do envolvimento cardíaco em fases subclínicas da doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
<p>Entretanto, valores normais de T1 não excluem o envolvimento cardíaco. Em regiões com inflamação, edema e fibrose, particularmente na parede inferolateral, o aumento do conteúdo hídrico e da matriz extracelular pode elevar o T1 e contrabalançar o efeito redutor do armazenamento intracelular, produzindo valores aparentemente normais, fenômeno denominado pseudonormalização do T1. Em estágios avançados, o T1 pode inclusive apresentar valores elevados nas regiões com fibrose extensa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
<p>Os valores de T1 devem ser interpretados conforme o equipamento, a técnica empregada e os valores de referência locais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Mapeamento T2 e Inflamação Miocárdica</title>
<p>O mapeamento T2 permite a avaliação quantitativa do conteúdo hídrico miocárdico e constitui um marcador não invasivo de edema e inflamação. Na doença de Fabry, valores elevados de T2 são observados predominantemente na parede inferolateral, frequentemente em associação com áreas de LGE, sugerindo a presença de atividade inflamatória crônica sobreposta ao armazenamento de glicoesfingolipídios e à fibrose miocárdica.</p>
<p>A elevação regional do T2 associa-se à presença de LGE, troponina elevada e maior gravidade da cardiomiopatia, devendo ser interpretada em conjunto com os demais parâmetros da RMC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Volume Extracelular</title>
<p>O volume extracelular miocárdico (ECV), calculado a partir dos valores de T1 obtidos antes e após a administração de contraste, em conjunto com o hematócrito, permite estimar a fração do miocárdio ocupada pelo espaço extracelular. Diferentemente do T1 nativo, que na doença de Fabry é tipicamente reduzido em decorrência do armazenamento intracelular de glicoesfingolipídios, o ECV geralmente permanece dentro dos limites da normalidade nas fases iniciais, refletindo a natureza predominantemente intracelular do processo de armazenamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
<p>Com a progressão da cardiomiopatia e o desenvolvimento de lesão miocárdica, inflamação e fibrose, pode ocorrer expansão do espaço extracelular e aumento regional ou global do ECV. Essas alterações são observadas principalmente nas regiões com LGE, particularmente na parede inferolateral, e podem contribuir para a caracterização da extensão do remodelamento intersticial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
<p>O ECV deve ser interpretado em conjunto com T1, T2 e LGE, pois valores normais não excluem envolvimento precoce e podem coexistir com alterações regionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title><italic>Strain</italic> pela RMC</title>
<p>A análise da deformação miocárdica por <italic>feature tracking</italic> na RMC permite quantificar os componentes longitudinal, circunferencial e radial do <italic>strain</italic> a partir das sequências cine convencionais, sem necessidade de aquisições adicionais. Na doença de Fabry, alterações da deformação miocárdica podem ser identificadas mesmo na presença de fração de ejeção preservada e apresentam associação com a gravidade do envolvimento cardíaco. Zhao <italic>et al.</italic> demonstraram redução do <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal e radial do ventrículo esquerdo, com comprometimento progressivo de acordo com o estágio da cardiomiopatia; entretanto, o <italic>strain</italic> circunferencial apresentou comportamento menos uniforme. Apesar de seu potencial para a caracterização funcional e o acompanhamento da progressão da doença, diferenças entre programas, métodos de análise e valores de referência ainda limitam sua aplicação clínica rotineira, sendo necessários estudos longitudinais para definir seu valor prognóstico e sua utilidade na monitorização terapêutica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
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<title>Conclusão</title>
<p>A integração do eletrocardiograma, da ecocardiografia e da RMC permite o diagnóstico precoce, a estratificação de risco e o acompanhamento da cardiomiopatia de Fabry. Técnicas emergentes, como o trabalho miocárdico e o <italic>feature tracking</italic>, mostram resultados promissores, mas ainda necessitam de maior validação.</p>
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<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn9"><label>Fontes de Financiamento</label><p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn10"><label>Vinculação Acadêmica</label><p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn11"><label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</label><p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comitê de Ética da Universidade Federal de São Paulo sob o número de protocolo 51118615.6.0000.5505. Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo estão de acordo com a Declaração de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013. O consentimento informado foi obtido de todos os participantes incluídos no estudo.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn12"><label>Uso de Inteligência Artificial</label><p>Durante a preparação deste trabalho, os autores usaram inteligência artificial para aprimoramento do texto e para fins de tradução, e não para a criação do conteúdo propriamente dito. Após o uso desta ferramenta/serviço, os autores revisaram e editaram o conteúdo conforme necessário e assumem total responsabilidade pelo conteúdo do artigo publicado.</p></fn>
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<title>Disponibilidade de Dados</title>
<p>Os conteúdos subjacentes ao texto da pesquisa estão contidos no manuscrito.</p>
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