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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcic</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Imagem Cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<issn pub-type="ppub">2318-8219</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiolodia (DIC/SBC)</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20260094i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="other">abcimg.20260094i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Equity and Representation in Cardiovascular Imaging: A Scientific Imperative, Not an Ideological One</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1872-9065</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Calheiros</surname><given-names>Enzo Crispino</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0007-5502-9248</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Veloso</surname><given-names>Julia Schettini</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2567-017X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Assunção</surname><given-names>Antonildes Nascimento</given-names><suffix>Junior</suffix></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8627-3661</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Araujo-Filho</surname><given-names>José Arimateia Batista</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Sírio-Libanês</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Sírio-Libanês, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do Coração</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto do Coração, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Grupo Fleury</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Grupo Fleury, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address:</label> <bold>José Arimateia Batista Araujo-Filho</bold> • Hospital Sírio-Libanês. Adma Jafet. Postal code: <postal-code>01308-050</postal-code>. São Paulo, SP – Brazil E-mail: <email>ariaraujocg@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="coi-statement"><label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label><p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsible for the review:</label><p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>13</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2026</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2026</year></pub-date>
<volume>39</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<elocation-id>e20260094</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>26</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2026</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>27</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2026</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>27</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2026</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Much of cardiovascular medicine has been built on evidence derived from predominantly White, male cohorts that do not reflect the diversity of the patient population. Consequently, reference values, devices, and algorithms may exhibit variable accuracy across groups, thereby compromising diagnostic precision. From the perspective of cardiovascular imaging, this review examines how underrepresentation in research translates into diagnostic inequities. We discuss scenarios where representation alters what imaging reveals: transthyretin amyloidosis associated with the Val142Ile variant in older adults of African ancestry, cardiopulmonary manifestations of sickle cell disease, and conditions that predominantly affect women, including ischemia with non-obstructive coronary arteries (INOCA) and takotsubo syndrome. We also address bias in devices and algorithms, exemplified by pulse oximetry and artificial intelligence models trained on datasets lacking diversity. Finally, we propose an agenda centered on ensuring representation in normative cohorts, subgroup validation, and the equitable implementation of novel technologies.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Equity</kwd>
<kwd>Diagnostic Imaging</kwd>
<kwd>Bias</kwd>
<kwd>Algorithms</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<funding-statement><bold>Sources of Funding</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="2"/>
<table-count count="0"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="19"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<p>
	<fig id="f1">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260094-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
	</p>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Although changes in the therapeutic and diagnostic landscape of contemporary cardiology have brought undeniable advances, they have also exposed a structural limitation in the knowledge upon which we have historically built our practice. Many of the reference values, diagnostic thresholds, algorithms, and even the devices at our disposal were calibrated based on predominantly White, male cohorts, which do not reflect the diversity of patients we treat. A test whose accuracy varies according to a patient&apos;s sex, ancestry, or race is, first and foremost, a less precise test, and this imprecision harms everyone.</p>
<p>In this context, considering equity and representation in cardiovascular imaging research and practice is not a concession to any particular ideological agenda, but rather a requirement of ethical commitment and scientific rigor. After all, equity does not compete with scientific precision; it stems from it. Here, we review some of the key issues highlighted in the recent literature.</p>
<sec>
<title>The documented burden of disparities</title>
<p>Disparities in cardiovascular disease outcomes have been widely documented and directly linked to persistent inequities in access to health care worldwide, affecting populations that have historically been underrepresented in various population-based studies (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Central Illustration</xref>).</p>
<p>Black individuals experience higher cardiovascular mortality and a substantially elevated risk of recurrent events; these disparities persist after adjusting for clinical factors and have been largely attributed to social determinants and unequal access to health care.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> For cardiologists and cardiovascular imaging specialists, these statistics are not merely a distant backdrop; they translate into diagnostic delays, underutilization of advanced imaging, and missed opportunities for prevention strategies, populations at greater risk and vulnerability.</p>
<p>Such disparities are likewise not randomly distributed geographically. Place of residence, imperfectly yet revealingly summarized by ZIP code, serves as a marker of environmental exposure, socioeconomic conditions, and access to health care, to the extent that ZIP code-based analyses can predict cardiovascular outcomes better than clinical data alone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> In a population-based cohort, a neighborhood disadvantage index alone accounted for 32% of the variation in adverse coronary artery disease events across neighborhoods, compared with only 10% accounted for by the clinical risk model.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Recognizing the relationship between where one lives and risk factors has led to the incorporation of geographic factors into risk stratification tools: the American Heart Association&apos;s PREVENT calculator includes an optional ZIP code-based component to capture neighborhood socioeconomic status and refine risk prediction beyond traditional biological factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> The lesson for cardiovascular imaging is analogous: The determinants that shape who falls ill and who has access to imaging must be considered during both the indication and interpretation phases; if we fail to do so, we run the risk of reproducing in our reports the inequalities that were established long before the images were acquired.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>When representation changes diagnosis</title>
<p>Some practical scenarios illustrate how the representation of factors such as race, ancestry, and sex can influence what cardiovascular imaging methods are capable of revealing.</p>
<p>Hereditary transthyretin cardiac amyloidosis associated with the Val142Ile variant (formerly Val122Ile) is an underdiagnosed cause of heart failure in older Black adults; the allele is present in approximately 3% to 4% of people of African descent in the United States, but it is practically absent among White individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> It is worth noting that the frequency of this variant tracks with genetic ancestry (specifically West African ancestry) rather than race as a social category; in this case, self-identified race serves as an imperfect marker of ancestry. For decades, these patients were labeled as having hypertensive heart failure or heart failure with preserved ejection fraction of undetermined origin, precisely because this specific condition was not considered. Imaging has changed this landscape, as bone-seeking radiotracer scintigraphy, subendocardial late gadolinium enhancement, and elevated extracellular volume on T1 mapping (via cardiac magnetic resonance imaging) now enable noninvasive diagnosis. In this context, the SCAN-MP study was intentionally designed to screen for cardiac amyloidosis using nuclear imaging in Black and Hispanic populations with heart failure, an explicit recognition that representativeness in imaging research is essential for diagnosing conditions that previously went undetected.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Ignoring these population did not by any means make the disease rare; instead, it merely kept it invisible.</p>
<p>Sickle cell disease provides a second example. Among patients with this disease, which predominantly affects individuals of African descent, cardiopulmonary complications, such as pulmonary hypertension, diastolic dysfunction, and sudden death, are the leading causes of mortality in adulthood.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Here, too, imaging has played a decisive role in clinical decision-making, since cardiac magnetic resonance imaging studies have shown that these patients develop a distinctive restrictive cardiomyopathy characterized by atrial dilation and restrictive physiology. This phenotype was only understood once the population was studied using appropriate imaging tools.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Cardiovascular research historically neglected these patients; had it continued to do so, we would still lack the valuable diagnostic framework needed to interpret these findings to this day.</p>
<p>Gender and sex provide an equally instructive perspective. For decades, ischemic heart disease was studied and defined based on the male pattern of epicardial obstruction, while mechanisms that are predominate in women were largely overlooked. Ischemia and myocardial infarction with non-obstrutive coronary arteries (INOCA and MINOCA) clearly illustrate this issue. An analysis of the ISCHEMIA trial revealed that INOCA was approximately four times more common in women than in men (odds ratio of 4.2 [95% confidence interval 3.4–5.2] for women in the multivariable analysis).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Because conventional angiography cannot visualize microcirculation, these conditions were long interpreted as non-cardiac chest pain. Today, functional imaging, including Positon Emission Tomography (PET)-based assessment of coronary flow and cardiac magnetic resonance perfusion and mapping, makes the underlying. In MINOCA, conversely, mechanisms such as plaque rupture or erosion, spontaneous coronary artery dissection and spasm predominate, the elucidation of which relies on modalities such as cardiac magnetic resonance and intracoronary imaging.</p>
<p>A similar phenomenon is observed in Takotsubo syndrome, a condition predominantly affecting post-menopausal women, who account for nearly 90% of cases in an international registry.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Recognition of this syndrome depends on patterns of ventricular ballooning identified via ventriculography, echocardiography, and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging; therefore, in this disease as well, what is observed depends on what we have decided to look for.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Bias in devices and algorithms</title>
<p>The third area of concern, perhaps the most urgent in the era of quantitative imaging and artificial intelligence, lies in bias embedded within devices and algorithms.</p>
<p>The case of pulse oximetry has become emblematic, as Black patients are approximately three times more likely to have undetected occult hypoxemia due to the interference of skin pigmentation with device readings.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> The parallel with cardiovascular imaging is direct. Artificial intelligence models trained on datasets lacking diversity tend to define what is &quot;normal&quot; and &quot;abnormal&quot; based on a narrow population and may exhibit systematic errors when applied to groups that were underrepresented in the training data.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Technically, these are classified as representation and aggregation biases, which have been described among the main mechanisms limiting the generalizability of artificial intelligence models in health care.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Normative values for myocardial thickness, strain, extracellular volume, or coronary calcium scores derived from homogeneous cohorts risk misclassifying patients whose underlying physiology remains understudied. A prime example in cardiovascular imaging involves a deep learning model for cardiac magnetic resonance image segmentation that, having been trained predominantly on White individuals, exhibited consistently inferior performance in Black and mixed-race patients prior to bias-mitigation strategies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
<p>Diversity in training datasets is necessary, but not sufficient. Models also require external validation across distinct populations and continuous monitoring after implementation. An algorithm is only as equitable as the data on which it was trained and only as reliable as the population in which it was validated. Cardiovascular imaging, which is increasingly reliant on automated measurements, must address this limitation in a transparent manner.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>From description to action: an agenda for cardiovascular imaging</title>
<p>It is worth clarifying a frequent misunderstanding here. Studying neglected populations is neither a favor to a specific group nor an exercise in political correctness, but rather a scientific strategy that expands knowledge applicable to all people.</p>
<p>It was only by investigating the Val142Ile variant in Black patients that our understanding of transthyretin amyloidosis as a whole was refined. Wild-type transthyretin amyloidosis is now recognized as a condition affecting older patients across diverse ancestral backgrounds. The study of sickling led to the characterization of a restrictive cardiomyopathy phenotype whose relevance extends beyond that specific disease. Science that excludes populations does not become more neutral; it becomes poorer, less generalizable, and less precise. After all, personalized medicine begins before treatment: it begins with generating evidence.</p>
<p>Recognizing disparities is merely the first step; the contemporary challenge lies in moving from description to action. A recent joint editorial by the American College of Cardiology, the American Heart Association, the European Society of Cardiology, and the World Heart Federation proposes exactly this shift, framing health equity not as a politicized agenda, but as a scientific frontier in cardiovascular medicine that warrants the same rigor applied to any other field.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> For our cardiovascular imaging community, this framing translates into concrete commitments.</p>
<p>The first is ensuring the representativeness of the cohorts that define normal values. Whenever biologically plausible and clinically relevant, reference values for myocardial thickness, strain, T1 mapping, extracellular volume, coronary calcium scores, and echocardiographic parameters should be established and reported across diverse populations in terms of ancestry and sex, so that the concept of &quot;normal&quot; is not derived from a narrow sample.</p>
<p>The second is validation of devices and algorithms across subgroups. Much like the lessons learned from pulse oximetry, imaging tools and artificial intelligence models should demonstrate consistent performance across groups prior to adoption, with explicit reporting of accuracy based on relevant variables such as race, ancestry, sex, and skin tone, rather than assuming generalizability based on homogeneous training data. This assessment must include external validation and post-implementation monitoring, as performance observed in one cohort does not guarantee reproducibility in another. This effort should be structured throughout the model&apos;s lifecycle, spanning conception and data collection, preprocessing, validation, deployment, and post-deployment monitoring. Furthermore, subgroup performance must always be evaluated using explicit fairness metrics, such as demographic parity and equal opportunity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
<p>The third encompasses education and diagnostic vigilance. It is crucial to incorporate into the training of cardiologists and radiologists the recognition of conditions that historical homogeneity has kept in the shadows, such as transthyretin amyloidosis in older Black adults and the cardiac manifestations of sickle cell disease, as well as the routine consideration of geographic and social determinants of access when ordering and interpreting tests.</p>
<p>Last comes implementation. Strategies such as telemedicine, abbreviated protocols, and lower-cost technologies have the potential to bring advanced imaging closer to historically underserved populations, provided they are designed with equity in mind, so that innovation will narrow, rather than widen, the gap between those who benefit and those who remain marginalized.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> A caveat regarding scope is warranted: the framework of disparities discussed herein relies largely on evidence from North America. Both epidemiological profiles and sociodemographic categories vary across health care systems and populations. In Brazil, for example, the high degree of genetic admixture limits the direct extrapolation of normative values and allele frequencies derived from other cohorts. Moreover, this viewpoint is a perspective article and does not constitute a systematic review of the literature.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Take-home message</title>
<p>Cardiovascular imaging is uniquely positioned to lead the necessary change, as it operates at the frontier between measurable physiology and clinical decision-making. The true measure of its excellence lies not only in the increasing sophistication of its methods but also in its ability to maintain accuracy across the entire population it aims to serve. Better representing human diversity does not mean tailoring science to an external agenda; it means aligning it more closely with the biological and social realities that science seeks to describe. The more diverse the evidence underpinning our methods, the more generalizable the resulting knowledge becomes, and the more precise the care offered to each patient. In this sense, equity is not at odds with scientific excellence; it is one of its most tangible expressions.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1"><label>Sources of Funding</label><p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><label>Study Association</label><p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><label>Ehics Approval and Consent to Participate</label><p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4"><label>Use of Artificial Intelligence</label><p>During the preparation of this work, the author(s) used ChatGPT for elaboration of Figure 1. After using this tool/service, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the content of the published article.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
<title>Availability of Research Data</title>
<p>The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
</sec>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20260094</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Equidade e Representatividade em Imagem Cardiovascular: Um Imperativo Científico, Não Ideológico</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1872-9065</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Calheiros</surname><given-names>Enzo Crispino</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0007-5502-9248</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Veloso</surname><given-names>Julia Schettini</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2567-017X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Assunção</surname><given-names>Antonildes Nascimento</given-names><suffix>Junior</suffix></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8627-3661</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Araujo-Filho</surname><given-names>José Arimateia Batista</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>3</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Sírio-Libanês, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto do Coração, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff6">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Grupo Fleury, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondência:</label> <bold>José Arimateia Batista Araujo-Filho</bold> • Hospital Sírio-Libanês. Adma Jafet. CEP: <postal-code>01308-050</postal-code>. São Paulo, SP – Brasil E-mail: <email>ariaraujocg@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="coi-statement"><label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label><p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label><p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A medicina cardiovascular construiu boa parte de seu conhecimento sobre coortes predominantemente brancas e masculinas, que não refletem a diversidade dos pacientes atendidos. Como consequência, valores de referência, dispositivos e algoritmos podem apresentar acurácia desigual entre grupos, o que compromete a precisão do exame. Esta revisão examina, sob a ótica da imagem cardiovascular, como a sub-representação na pesquisa se traduz em iniquidades diagnósticas. Discutimos cenários em que a representatividade altera aquilo que o método revela: a amiloidose por transtirretina associada à variante Val142Ile em idosos afrodescendentes, as manifestações cardiopulmonares da anemia falciforme e os quadros predominantes em mulheres, como a isquemia com coronárias não obstruídas e a síndrome de Takotsubo. Abordamos ainda o viés de dispositivos e algoritmos, exemplificado pela oximetria de pulso e por modelos de inteligência artificial treinados em bases pouco diversas. Por fim, propomos uma agenda centrada na representatividade das coortes normativas, na validação por subgrupo e na implementação equitativa de novas tecnologias.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Equidade</kwd>
<kwd>Diagnóstico por Imagem</kwd>
<kwd>Viés</kwd>
<kwd>Algoritmos</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<funding-statement><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold> O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
	<p>
<fig id="f2">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260094-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
		</p>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>As mudanças no cenário terapêutico e diagnóstico da cardiologia contemporânea trouxeram avanços inegáveis, mas também expuseram uma limitação estrutural do conhecimento sobre o qual historicamente construímos nossa prática. Boa parte dos valores de referência, dos limiares diagnósticos, dos algoritmos e mesmo dos dispositivos de que dispomos foi calibrada em coortes predominantemente brancas e masculinas, que muitas vezes não refletem a diversidade dos pacientes que atendemos. Um exame cuja acurácia varia conforme o sexo, a ancestralidade ou a raça do paciente é, antes de qualquer outra consideração, um exame menos preciso, e essa imprecisão prejudica a todos.</p>
<p>Nesse contexto, considerar equidade e representatividade na pesquisa e na prática em imagem cardíaca não constitui uma concessão a determinada agenda ideológica, mas uma exigência de compromisso ético e rigor científico. Afinal, a equidade não concorre com a precisão científica; ela decorre dela. Revisaremos aqui alguns dos principais pontos levantados pela literatura recente sobre essas questões.</p>
<sec>
<title>O peso documentado das disparidades</title>
<p>As disparidades de desfecho na doença cardiovascular estão amplamente documentadas e são diretamente relacionadas às persistentes iniquidades no acesso à saúde globalmente, com populações historicamente sub-representadas em diversos estudos populacionais (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura Central</xref>).</p>
<p>Indivíduos negros apresentam maior mortalidade cardiovascular e risco substancialmente mais elevado de eventos recorrentes, diferença que persiste após ajuste para fatores clínicos e que é, em grande parte, atribuída a determinantes sociais e ao acesso desigual ao cuidado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Para o cardiologista e para o especialista em imagem cardiovascular, tais estatísticas não constituem pano de fundo distante: traduzem-se em atrasos diagnósticos, na subutilização de exames avançados e em oportunidades perdidas de prevenção justamente nos grupos de maior risco e vulnerabilidade.</p>
<p>Tais disparidades tampouco se distribuem ao acaso no território. O local de residência, sintetizado de forma imperfeita mas reveladora pelo código postal, funciona como marcador de exposições ambientais, condições socioeconômicas e acesso aos sistemas de saúde, a ponto de análises baseadas em código postal preverem desfechos cardiovasculares melhor do que dados clínicos isolados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Em coorte de base populacional, um índice de desvantagem do bairro explicou, isoladamente, cerca de três vezes mais da variação de eventos adversos por doença arterial coronariana entre vizinhanças do que o modelo de risco clínico (32% versus 10%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> O reconhecimento de que o lugar em que se vive está relacionado a variáveis de risco levou à própria incorporação de variáveis geográficas às ferramentas de estratificação: a calculadora PREVENT, da American Heart Association, admite um complemento opcional baseado no código postal para captar o nível socioeconômico do bairro e refinar a predição para além dos fatores biológicos tradicionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Para a imagem cardiovascular, a lição é análoga, na medida em que os determinantes que moldam quem adoece e quem tem acesso aos exames precisam ser considerados na indicação e na interpretação, sob pena de reproduzirmos no laudo as desigualdades que se estabeleceram muito antes da aquisição das imagens.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Quando a representatividade muda o diagnóstico</title>
<p>Alguns cenários práticos ilustram como a representatividade de fatores como raça, ancestralidade e sexo pode influenciar aquilo que um método de imagem cardiovascular é capaz de revelar.</p>
<p>A amiloidose cardíaca por transtirretina hereditária associada à variante Val142Ile (antiga Val122Ile) é causa subdiagnosticada de insuficiência cardíaca em idosos negros, na qual o alelo está presente em cerca de 3% a 4% dos afrodescendentes nos Estados Unidos e é praticamente ausente na população branca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Vale precisar que a frequência dessa variante acompanha a ancestralidade genética (sobretudo a origem oeste-africana) e não a raça enquanto categoria social; a autodeclaração racial funciona, neste caso, como marcador imperfeito dessa ancestralidade. Durante décadas, esses pacientes foram rotulados como portadores de insuficiência cardíaca hipertensiva ou de insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada de origem indeterminada, precisamente porque tal entidade não era considerada. A imagem modificou esse cenário, uma vez que a cintilografia com radiotraçadores ósseos, o realce tardio subendocárdico e a elevação do volume extracelular ao mapeamento T1 na ressonância cardíaca permitem hoje o diagnóstico não invasivo. Não por acaso, o estudo SCAN-MP foi desenhado especificamente para rastrear amiloidose cardíaca por imagem nuclear em populações negras e hispânicas com insuficiência cardíaca, reconhecimento explícito de que a representatividade na pesquisa por imagem é condição para diagnosticar o que antes passava despercebido.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Ignorar essa população não tornava a doença verdadeiramente rara; apenas a mantinha invisível.</p>
<p>A anemia falciforme oferece um segundo exemplo. Doença que acomete majoritariamente indivíduos de ascendência africana, encontra nas complicações cardiopulmonares, como hipertensão pulmonar, disfunção diastólica e morte súbita, a principal causa de mortalidade na idade adulta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Também aqui a imagem se mostra decisiva para a tomada de decisão clínica, uma vez que estudos de ressonância cardíaca demonstraram que esses pacientes desenvolvem uma cardiomiopatia restritiva peculiar, caracterizada por dilatação atrial e fisiologia restritiva, fenótipo que somente se tornou compreensível quando a população foi estudada com as ferramentas de imagem adequadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Caso a pesquisa cardiovascular tivesse historicamente negligenciado esses pacientes, como em parte o fez, permaneceríamos sem um valioso arcabouço propedêutico para interpretar seus achados.</p>
<p>O gênero e o sexo oferecem um eixo igualmente instrutivo. Por décadas, a doença isquêmica foi estudada e definida a partir do padrão masculino de obstrução epicárdica, o que relegou a segundo plano os mecanismos que predominam nas mulheres. A isquemia e o infarto com coronárias não obstruídas (INOCA e MINOCA, do inglês <italic>ischemia with non-obstructive coronary artery</italic> e <italic>myocardial infarction with non-obstructive coronary artery</italic>, respectivamente) ilustram bem o problema: em análise do estudo ISCHEMIA, a INOCA foi cerca de quatro vezes mais frequente em mulheres do que em homens (razão de chances de 4,2 [intervalo de confiança de 95%: 3,4–5,2] para o sexo feminino na análise multivariável).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Como a angiografia convencional não resolve a microcirculação, esses quadros foram por muito tempo interpretados como dor não cardíaca, e é a imagem funcional (a reserva de fluxo coronariano por Tomografia por Emissão de Pósitrons (PET), a perfusão e o mapeamento por ressonância cardíaca) que hoje torna visível a disfunção microvascular subjacente. Na MINOCA, por sua vez, predominam mecanismos como ruptura ou erosão de placa, dissecção coronariana espontânea e espasmo, cuja elucidação depende de modalidades como a ressonância cardíaca e a imagem intracoronariana.</p>
<p>Fenômeno análogo se observa na síndrome de Takotsubo, entidade fortemente predominante em mulheres, sobretudo após a menopausa, na qual quase 90% dos casos do registro internacional ocorreram no sexo feminino,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> e cujo reconhecimento depende de padrões de balonamento ventricular caracterizados pela ventriculografia, pela ecocardiografia e pela ressonância cardíaca. Também aqui, portanto, o que se enxerga depende de se ter, antes, decidido procurar.</p>
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<sec>
<title>Vieses de dispositivos e algoritmos</title>
<p>O terceiro eixo, talvez o mais urgente na era da imagem quantitativa e da inteligência artificial, reside no viés embutido em dispositivos e algoritmos.</p>
<p>O caso da oximetria de pulso tornou-se emblemático, na medida em que pacientes negros apresentam cerca de três vezes mais hipoxemia oculta não detectada, em razão da interferência da maior pigmentação cutânea na leitura do dispositivo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> O paralelo com a imagem cardiovascular é direto. Modelos de inteligência artificial treinados em bases pouco diversas tendem a definir o normal e o anormal a partir de uma população estreita e podem incorrer em erro sistemático quando aplicados a grupos sub-representados nos dados de treinamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Tecnicamente, trata-se sobretudo de viés de representação e de agregação, descritos entre os principais mecanismos que limitam a generalização de modelos de inteligência artificial em saúde.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Valores normativos de espessura miocárdica, <italic>strain</italic>, volume extracelular ou escore de cálcio coronariano derivados de coortes homogêneas correm o risco de classificar erroneamente pacientes cuja fisiologia foi pouco estudada. Um exemplo direto na imagem cardíaca é o de um modelo de aprendizagem profunda (subgrupo da inteligência artificial) para segmentação de ressonância cardíaca treinado predominantemente em indivíduos brancos, que exibiu desempenho sistematicamente inferior em pacientes negros e de raça mista até que estratégias de mitigação de viés fossem aplicadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
<p>A diversidade das bases de treinamento é necessária, mas não suficiente. Modelos também exigem validação externa em populações distintas e monitoramento contínuo após sua implementação. Um algoritmo é tão equânime quanto os dados que o alimentam e tão confiável quanto a população em que foi validado. A imagem cardíaca, cada vez mais dependente de medidas automatizadas, precisa enfrentar essa limitação de maneira transparente.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Da descrição à ação: uma agenda para a imagem cardiovascular</title>
<p>Convém esclarecermos aqui um ponto frequentemente mal compreendido. Estudar populações negligenciadas não representa um favor a determinado grupo, tampouco um exercício de correção política, mas uma estratégia científica que amplia o conhecimento aproveitável por todos.</p>
<p>Foi ao investigar a variante Val142Ile em pacientes negros que se refinou a compreensão da amiloidose por transtirretina como um todo, hoje reconhecida também em sua forma selvagem em idosos de todas as origens. Foi ao estudar a falcização que se caracterizou um fenótipo de cardiomiopatia restritiva de valor que transcende aquela doença. A ciência que exclui populações não se torna mais neutra; torna-se mais pobre, menos generalizável e menos precisa. A medicina personalizada, afinal, começa antes do tratamento: começa na produção da evidência.</p>
<p>Reconhecer as disparidades é apenas o primeiro passo; o desafio contemporâneo consiste em passar da descrição à ação. Editorial conjunto recente do American College of Cardiology, da American Heart Association, da European Society of Cardiology e da World Heart Federation propõe precisamente esse deslocamento, ao enquadrar a equidade em saúde não como agenda politizada, mas como fronteira científica da medicina cardiovascular, merecedora do mesmo rigor dedicado a qualquer outro campo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Para a nossa comunidade de imagem cardiovascular, esse enquadramento traduz-se em compromissos concretos.</p>
<p>O primeiro é a representatividade das coortes que definem a normalidade. Sempre que biologicamente plausível e clinicamente relevante, valores de referência de espessura miocárdica, <italic>strain</italic>, mapeamento T1 e volume extracelular, escore de cálcio coronariano e parâmetros ecocardiográficos deveriam ser estabelecidos e relatados em populações diversas quanto à ancestralidade e ao sexo, de modo que o próprio conceito de normal não seja tributário de uma amostra estreita.</p>
<p>O segundo é a validação por subgrupo de dispositivos e algoritmos. À semelhança do que a oximetria de pulso ensinou, ferramentas de imagem e modelos de inteligência artificial deveriam demonstrar desempenho consistente entre grupos antes de sua incorporação, com relato explícito de acurácia segundo variáveis relevantes, como raça, ancestralidade, sexo e tom de pele, em vez de se presumir a generalização a partir de dados de treinamento homogêneos. Essa avaliação deve incluir validação externa e vigilância após a implementação, pois o desempenho observado em uma coorte não garante sua reprodução em outra. Convém que esse esforço seja estruturado ao longo do ciclo de vida do modelo, desde a concepção e coleta de dados ao pré-processamento, à validação, à implantação e à vigilância pós-implantação. Além disso, o desempenho por subgrupo deve sempre ser aferido por métricas de equidade explícitas, como a paridade demográfica e a igualdade de oportunidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
<p>O terceiro é a educação e a vigilância diagnóstica. Importa incorporar à formação do cardiologista e do radiologista o reconhecimento das entidades que a homogeneidade histórica manteve na sombra, como a amiloidose por transtirretina no idoso negro e as manifestações cardíacas da falcização, bem como o hábito de considerar, na indicação e na interpretação, os determinantes geográficos e sociais que condicionam o acesso.</p>
<p>Por fim, a implementação. Estratégias como a telemedicina, os protocolos abreviados e as tecnologias de menor custo têm potencial de aproximar a imagem avançada de populações historicamente desassistidas, desde que concebidas com equidade em mente, para que a inovação reduza, e não amplie, a distância entre os que se beneficiam e os que permanecem à margem.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Cabe aqui uma ressalva de escopo: a estrutura das disparidades aqui discutida apoia-se em grande parte na evidência norte-americana, e tanto o perfil epidemiológico quanto as categorias sociodemográficas variam entre sistemas de saúde e populações. No Brasil, por exemplo, a intensa miscigenação limita a transposição direta de valores normativos e de frequências alélicas derivados de outras coortes. Este comentário, ademais, tem caráter de perspectiva e não constitui revisão sistemática da literatura.</p>
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<title>Mensagem final</title>
<p>A imagem cardiovascular tem vocação particular para liderar a mudança necessária, por operar na fronteira entre a fisiologia mensurável e a decisão clínica. A verdadeira medida de sua excelência não está apenas na sofisticação crescente dos métodos, mas na capacidade de manter sua precisão para toda a população à qual pretendem servir. Representar melhor a diversidade humana não significa adaptar a ciência a uma agenda externa; significa aproximá-la da realidade biológica e social que ela pretende descrever. Quanto mais diversa é a evidência que sustenta nossos métodos, mais generalizável se torna o conhecimento produzido e mais preciso é o cuidado oferecido a cada paciente. Equidade, nesse sentido, não se opõe à excelência científica; constitui uma de suas expressões mais concretas.</p>
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<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn5"><label>Fontes de Financiamento</label><p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><label>Vinculação Acadêmica</label><p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7"><label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</label><p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn8"><label>Uso de Inteligência Artificial</label><p>Durante a preparação deste trabalho, os autores utilizaram o ChatGPT para a elaboração da Figura 1. Após o uso desta ferramenta, os autores revisaram e editaram o conteúdo conforme necessário e assumem total responsabilidade pelo conteúdo do artigo publicado.</p></fn>
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<title>Disponibilidade de Dados</title>
<p>Os conteúdos subjacentes ao texto da pesquisa estão contidos no manuscrito.</p>
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