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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcic</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Imagem Cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<issn pub-type="ppub">2318-8219</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiolodia (DIC/SBC)</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20260085i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="other">abcimg.20260085i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>My Approach to Echocardiographic Guidance During Percutaneous Balloon Mitral Valvuloplasty</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0477-480X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Gripp</surname><given-names>Eliza de Almeida</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0008-7868-1623</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Lourenço</surname><given-names>Bernardo Nascimento</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-2003-4242</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Carestiato</surname><given-names>Larissa Ribas</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0009-0391-6130</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Ribeiro</surname><given-names>Marcelo Lemos</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7327-1237</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Côrtes</surname><given-names>Leandro Assumpção</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2959-1874</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Rabischoffsky</surname><given-names>Arnaldo</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Universitário Antônio Pedro</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Universitário Antônio Pedro (HUAP), Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Pró-Cardíaco</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Pró-Cardíaco, Botafogo, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Cardiovasculares</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Cardiovasculares, Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Fátima, Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>4</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia, Laranjeiras, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address:</label> <bold>Eliza de Almeida Gripp</bold> • Hospital Pró-Cardíaco. Rua General Polidoro, 192. Postal code: <postal-code>22280-003</postal-code>. Botafogo, RJ – Brazil E-mail: <email>elizagripp@yahoo.com.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="coi-statement"><label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label><p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsible for the review:</label><p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>13</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2026</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2026</year></pub-date>
<volume>39</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<elocation-id>e20260085</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>13</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2026</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>22</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2026</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>25</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2026</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) remains a major global public health challenge because of its substantial morbidity and mortality, predominantly affecting the mitral valve. Although its prevalence is higher in developing countries, the disease continues to be diagnosed, albeit less frequently, in developed nations. Percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty (PBMV) has become a highly effective therapeutic option for appropriately selected patients, with its technical and clinical success being strongly dependent on careful candidate selection. This article reviews the key aspects of PBMV, ranging from the echocardiographic criteria used for patient selection to intraprocedural monitoring using transesophageal echocardiography (TEE).</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Three-Dimensional Echocardiography</kwd>
<kwd>Transesophageal Echocardiography</kwd>
<kwd>Mitral Valve Stenosis</kwd>
<kwd>Rheumatic Heart Disease</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<funding-statement><bold>Sources of Funding</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="16"/>
<table-count count="0"/>
<equation-count count="2"/>
<ref-count count="33"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<fig id="f1">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) remains one of the leading causes of cardiovascular disease worldwide and is considered the second leading cause of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, surpassed only by atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> The prevalence of RHD remains high in developing countries; in Brazil and India, for example, it is estimated at 7 and 6 cases per 1,000 school-aged children, respectively. According to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, approximately 10 million episodes of pharyngotonsillitis occur annually in Brazil, resulting in an estimated 30,000 new cases of acute rheumatic fever.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Globally, approximately 30 million children and young adults are estimated to be living with the chronic form of the disease. In contrast, the incidence in developed countries is substantially lower, ranging from 0.1 to 0.4 cases per 1,000 school-aged children, as reported in the United States.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>In Brazil, the lack of effective rheumatic fever prevention programs places a substantial burden on the public healthcare system. This gap in care facilitates the progression to chronic valvular disease, among which mitral stenosis (MS) is the most common manifestation. Patients with severe symptomatic MS have a formal indication for intervention, which may be performed using either a percutaneous or a surgical approach.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>Historically, before the advent of percutaneous techniques, surgical commissurotomy was the standard treatment for MS. Initially, the procedure consisted of digital commissurotomy, in which the surgeon used their fingers to separate the fused valvular commissures. Subsequently, technical refinements led to the introduction of a mechanical dilator through the surgical incision, allowing more controlled dilation of the mitral valve. Closed surgical commissurotomy, introduced in the 1940s, was gradually replaced by open-heart surgery between the late 1960s and early 1970s, driven by the development of cardiopulmonary bypass. In 1982, Kanji Inoue performed the first percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty (PBMV), with the original description published in 1984.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Although alternative techniques, such as the double-balloon approach, were also developed, the Inoue balloon became the device of choice. When appropriately indicated, PBMV provides efficacy and long-term durability comparable to those of surgical commissurotomy, resulting in sustained hemodynamic and clinical improvement in both the short and long term, with an overall mortality rate of approximately 1%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Although the devices used in PBMV, such as balloon catheters, have undergone relatively modest technological changes over the past four decades, advances in cardiac imaging have profoundly transformed the procedure. Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE), particularly following the introduction of 3D imaging, has assumed a pivotal role. The high-quality images provided by TEE, combined with the expertise of the interventional cardiologist, have made PBMV both safer and more effective. In the catheterization laboratory, the echocardiographer plays a crucial role, particularly in guiding transseptal puncture, thereby improving anatomical precision and reducing the risks associated with one of the most critical steps of the procedure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>Preprocedural assessment and planning for PBMV</title>
<sec>
<title>Appropriate patient selection for the procedure</title>
<p>TEE plays a pivotal role in the diagnosis, anatomical stratification, and careful selection of patients eligible for PBMV. The primary indications for the procedure include patients with severe MS and favorable valve anatomy (Class I, Level of Evidence B) as well as symptomatic patients with severe MS who are at high surgical risk (Class I, Level of Evidence C), provided that no thrombus is present in the left atrium (LA) or left atrial appendage (LAA).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>PBMV is also a safe, effective therapeutic option for pregnant women with severe MS and favorable valve anatomy, preferably after the 24th week of gestation. When performed with appropriate radiation protection, including lead shielding and minimal radiation exposure, the procedure is associated with low maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>In contrast, mitral valve degeneration secondary to mitral annular calcification is not an indication for PBMV, as its underlying pathophysiology does not involve commissural fusion.</p>
<p>A systematic assessment of mitral valve anatomy and accurate measurement of the mitral valve area (MVA) constitute the cornerstone of PBMV indication. Currently, severe MS is defined based on MVA measurement, obtained using quantitative methods with 2D TEE or, more accurately, by direct planimetry with 3D TEE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Compared with the 2D technique, 3D planimetry provides greater accuracy and reproducibility by allowing more precise delineation of the valve orifice and complete visualization of the leaflets and commissures<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> (Video 1; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
<media mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-m01a.mp4">
<label>Video 1</label>
<caption><title>1A) View: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_1A.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_1A.mp4</ext-link>. 1B) View: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_1B.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_1B.mp4</ext-link>. 1C) View: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_1C.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_1C.mp4</ext-link></title></caption>
</media>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><title>Key echocardiographic findings in the preprocedural assessment for PBMV. A) Color Doppler demonstrating the PISA in a patient with isolated MS, without MR or valvular calcification. B) 3D reconstruction of the mitral valve from the LA perspective (surgeon&apos;s view), demonstrating nearly symmetrical commissural fusion. C) MVA measurement using multiplanar reconstruction (MultiVue) derived from the 3D dataset, yielding a value of 1.2 cm<sup>2</sup>. D) Transgastric 142° view demonstrating the subvalvular apparatus and chordae tendineae for the assessment of thickening and calcification in patients with rheumatic involvement. LA: left atrium; MR: mitral regurgitation; MS: mitral stenosis; MVA: mitral valve area; PBMV: percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty; PISA: proximal isovelocity surface area.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>The anatomical evaluation should include a detailed assessment of leaflet morphology, including the degree of thickening and the presence of calcification, as well as commissural morphology. Characterization of the extent and symmetry of commissural fusion and the distribution of calcification is essential, given that the mechanism of PBMV is based on the mechanical separation of fused commissures, thereby increasing the MVA. The severity and pattern of commissural fusion are directly associated with the risk of clinically significant mitral regurgitation (MR) following the procedure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> 3D TEE has revolutionized this assessment by enabling direct, real-time evaluation of the commissures from a single volumetric acquisition of the mitral valve displayed from the LA perspective (surgeon&apos;s view) (Video 1B; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 1B</xref>).</p>
<p>Assessment of the subvalvular apparatus is also mandatory. Acquisition of the 142° TEE imaging plane is recommended to quantify the degree of chordal thickening, fusion, and calcification (Video 1C; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 1D</xref>).</p>
<p>Several echocardiographic scoring systems have been proposed to standardize preprocedural assessment. The Wilkins score, introduced in 1988, remains the most widely used model and evaluates four structural components: leaflet mobility, leaflet thickening, calcification, and subvalvular involvement. However, this score has important limitations as it does not incorporate commissural anatomy and has limited predictive value for long-term outcomes, including the development of acute MR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>To address such limitations, Nunes et al. proposed a more comprehensive model incorporating additional variables, including MVA, apical leaflet displacement, commissural area ratio, and subvalvular involvement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Long-term outcomes after PBMV have also been shown to be strongly influenced by patient age and the quality of the immediate procedural result.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<p>Another key component of the preprocedural evaluation is the exclusion of contraindications to PBMV, particularly the presence of greater than mild MR. In such cases, MR severity should preferably be quantified using the quantitative methods recommended in current guidelines, rather than relying solely on qualitative parameters<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption><title>Echocardiographic quantification of MR before PBMV. A) Quantification of MR using the PISA method. B) Quantification of MR using continuous-wave Doppler of the regurgitant jet, allowing calculation of the EROA and RV. The measured values (EROA = 0.09 cm<sup>2</sup> and RV = 12 mL) are consistent with mild MR. EROA: effective regurgitant orifice area; MR: mitral regurgitation; PBMV: percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty; PISA: proximal isovelocity surface area; RV: regurgitant volume.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-gf04.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Other contraindications to the procedure include extensive or bicommissural mitral valve calcification, MVA &gt; 1.5 cm<sup>2</sup>, concomitant severe aortic valve disease, coronary artery disease requiring surgical revascularization, significant tricuspid stenosis or regurgitation associated with tricuspid annular dilatation, the presence of thrombus in the LA or LAA, and the absence of commissural fusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Exclusion of LAA and left atrial thrombus</title>
<p>Screening for thrombus within the LA, particularly the LAA, is a mandatory component of the preprocedural assessment. This evaluation should be performed both during the outpatient TEE examination, together with MVA measurement and application of the eligibility scores, and immediately before the intervention. The identification of an intracavitary thrombus constitutes an absolute contraindication to PBMV, requiring cancellation of the procedure and immediate initiation of anticoagulant therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>To optimize LAA assessment, the use of the biplane (X-plane) imaging modality is recommended, as it enables the simultaneous acquisition of orthogonal planes and a more comprehensive evaluation of the structure, thereby increasing the sensitivity for thrombus detection (Video 2A).</p>
<media mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-m02a.mp4">
<label>Video 2</label>
<caption><title>Different locations of thrombi within the LAA. A) Biplane (X-plane) TEE demonstrating a thrombus (red arrow) located within the body of the LAA. View: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_2A.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_2A.mp4</ext-link>. B) Example of a thrombus (red arrow) located at the LAA ostium, demonstrated using biplane (X-plane) imaging. View: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_2B.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_2B.mp4</ext-link>. C) Large thrombus (red arrow) involving both the body and the ostium of the LAA. View: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_2C.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_2C.mp4</ext-link>. LAA: left atrial appendage; TEE: transesophageal echocardiography.</title></caption>
</media>
<p>In cases of diagnostic uncertainty, particularly when differentiating thrombus from sludge and imaging artifacts, ultrasound enhancing agents (UEAs) may be used. Although dedicated software for myocardial perfusion analysis with UEAs is not yet available for TEE, current guidelines recommend their use by adapting image acquisition settings through reduction of the mechanical index (MI &lt; 0.3). Thrombi are characterized by the absence of UEA enhancement. In contrast, sludge, a condition reflecting blood stasis and a high thromboembolic potential, demonstrates complete LAA opacification, although with delayed contrast filling consistent with reduced LAA emptying velocities. Conversely, isolated spontaneous echocardiographic contrast is characterized by rapid and homogeneous opacification of the LAA following UEA administration.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>Once an LAA thrombus has been confirmed by TEE, full anticoagulation with a vitamin K antagonist, preferably warfarin, is recommended (Class I). The recommended duration of anticoagulation before repeat echocardiographic assessment varies among guidelines and published studies, generally ranging from 1 to 3 months. However, the therapeutic response is heterogeneous. Recent evidence has demonstrated that LAA morphology and thrombus location are important predictors of thrombus resolution. Cauliflower and chicken-wing morphologies, particularly when associated with thrombi located in the body or base of the LAA, are associated with a lower likelihood of resolution following anticoagulation. In contrast, cactus morphology and thrombi confined to the apical portion of the LAA are associated with higher rates of complete resolution within 3 months.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Assessment of interatrial septal anatomy</title>
<p>A thorough understanding of interatrial septal (IAS) anatomy is essential for the success and safety of transseptal puncture, a critical step in PBMV. First described in 1959, the transseptal puncture technique has become widely adopted with the expansion of percutaneous structural heart interventions, including PBMV. For this procedure, the ideal puncture site is the posteroinferior portion of the fossa ovalis (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f6">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption><title>Anatomy of the IAS and the principal transseptal puncture sites. Region I corresponds to the posterosuperior portion of the fossa ovalis and is preferentially used for procedures such as transcatheter mitral valve repair (MitraClip) and closure of paravalvular leaks. Region II corresponds to the posteroinferior portion of the fossa ovalis and is considered the ideal site for transseptal puncture during PBMV. Region III corresponds to the anteroinferior portion of the fossa ovalis and is typically used for pulmonary vein isolation procedures. IAS: interatrial septum; PBMV: percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-gf06.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>TEE is indispensable for guiding transseptal puncture, reducing the risk of potentially serious complications, such as inadvertent perforation of the aortic root.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
<p>To ensure accurate needle positioning, the bicaval view (typically between 90° and 110°), combined with the biplane (X-plane) imaging modality, is particularly useful. This approach allows simultaneous visualization of the IAS and the ascending aorta in the short-axis view, providing the interventional cardiologist with anatomical landmarks that help maintain the needle-catheter assembly at a safe distance from this adjacent vascular structure<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> (Video 3A; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 4A</xref>).</p>
<media mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-m03a.mp4">
<label>Video 3</label>
<caption><title>3A) View: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_3A.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_3A.mp4</ext-link>. 3B) View: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_3B.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_3B.mp4</ext-link>. 3C) View: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_3C.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_3C.mp4</ext-link></title></caption>
</media>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figure 4</label>
<caption><title>Anatomical features of the IAS relevant to transseptal puncture. A) 3D reconstruction of the IAS obtained using the 3D Zoom acquisition mode from the RA perspective, demonstrating the normal anatomy of the fossa ovalis, represented by the dropout, as well as the AV, SVC, and IVC. B) Redundant Eustachian valve, an anatomical feature that may complicate transseptal puncture. C) IAS aneurysm, an important anatomical variant that should be identified before the procedure because it increases the technical complexity of transseptal puncture. AV: aortic valve; IAS: interatrial septum; IVC: inferior vena cava; RA: right atrium; SVC: superior vena cava.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-gf08.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>During this stage, the echocardiographer should identify anatomical variations that may increase the complexity of transseptal puncture, such as a prominent Eustachian valve or an IAS aneurysm. In the presence of an IAS aneurysm, excessive septal mobility may create the false impression that the needle has already entered the LA. However, fluoroscopy demonstrates that the needle remains within the right atrium, without complete traversal of the IAS.</p>
<p>Identification of a patent foramen ovale (PFO) is another important aspect of the preprocedural assessment. Although its presence may complicate transseptal puncture, a PFO may be used as an access route to the LA when this is the sole objective of the procedure. In contrast, in interventions such as MitraClip<sup>®</sup> implantation and percutaneous LAA closure, its use is not recommended, as its marked mobility and anatomical location frequently result in suboptimal positioning of the transseptal system<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> (Video 3A; Video 3B; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Selection of the appropriate balloon size</title>
<p>Selection of the appropriate Inoue balloon size is a critical step in PBMV, as an inappropriate device size may result in inadequate commissural splitting or injury to the leaflets and subvalvular apparatus, leading to severe MR requiring surgical treatment. Traditionally, balloon diameter is estimated using the following height-based formula:</p>
<disp-formula id="eq2">
<mml:math id="m1" display="block"><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">B</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">a</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">l</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">l</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">o</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">o</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">n</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold"> </mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">d</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">i</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">a</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">m</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">e</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">t</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">e</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">r</mml:mi><mml:mtext> </mml:mtext><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">m</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">m</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mi mathvariant="bold"> </mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">h</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">e</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">i</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">g</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">h</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">t</mml:mi><mml:mtext> </mml:mtext><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">c</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">m</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo><mml:mo>/</mml:mo><mml:mn mathvariant="bold">1</mml:mn><mml:mn mathvariant="bold">0</mml:mn><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mn mathvariant="bold">1</mml:mn><mml:mn mathvariant="bold">0</mml:mn></mml:mrow></mml:math>
</disp-formula>
<p>However, the lack of a linear relationship between patient height and MVA must be emphasised<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figure 5A-C</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f9">
<label>Figure 5</label>
<caption><title>Structure and inflation sequence of the Inoue balloon. A) Inoue balloon showing the proximal segment (1), the waist (2), and the distal segment (3). The waist corresponds to the region of greatest radial force and is responsible for commissural splitting during PBMV. B-D) Balloon inflation sequence during the procedure: the distal segment is inflated first, followed by the proximal segment and, finally, the waist, thereby producing commissural splitting. PBMV: percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-gf09.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>As an alternative to height-based formulas, balloon catheter size can be individualized using TEE. This approach is based on measurement of the mitral annular diameter in the apical four-chamber and two-chamber views, preferably during midsystole or end-systole. From an anatomical standpoint, the measurement obtained in the apical two-chamber view is particularly relevant because it corresponds to the largest intercommissural diameter of the mitral valve, providing a more reliable parameter for device selection and reducing the risk of overdilatation and severe MR..<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
<p>Inoue balloons are available in different diameters, and initial selection may be guided by patient height:</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>24 mm balloon: dilation range of 20–24 mm; recommended for patients with a height ≤ 140 cm.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>26 mm balloon: dilation range of 22–26 mm; recommended for patients with a height ≤ 160 cm.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>28 mm balloon: dilation range of 24–28 mm; recommended for patients with a height of 160–180 cm.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>30 mm balloon: dilation range of 26–30 mm; recommended for patients with a height &gt; 180 cm..</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Procedure</title>
<sec>
<title>Objective</title>
<p>Successful PBMV is defined as achievement of an MVA &gt; 1.5 cm<sup>2</sup> without induction of moderate or severe MR (grade &gt; 2+). Achieving this outcome requires the echocardiographer to have a detailed understanding of all procedural steps and to maintain continuous communication with the interventional cardiologist throughout the procedure (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Central Illustration</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Procedural steps</title>
<sec>
<title>Step 1 – Image-guided transseptal puncture</title>
<p>The first step of PBMV is transseptal puncture, performed via femoral venous access. Using the biplane (X-plane) imaging modality in the bicaval TEE view, the echocardiographer guides the interventional cardiologist to puncture the posteroinferior portion of the IAS (Video 4A-B; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figure 6A-B</xref>). This puncture site is critical because it provides a safe distance from the aortic root, an adequate working height within the LA, and coaxial alignment of the delivery system with the mitral valve.</p>
<media mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-m04a.mp4">
<label>Video 4</label>
<caption><title>4A) View: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_4A.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_4A.mp4</ext-link>. 4B) View: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_4B.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_4B.mp4</ext-link>. 4C) View: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_4C.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_4C.mp4</ext-link></title></caption>
</media>
<fig id="f11">
<label>Figure 6</label>
<caption><title>Echocardiographic guidance of transseptal puncture during PBMV. A) Bicaval view combined with the biplane (X-plane) imaging mode, allowing simultaneous visualization of the IAS and the AA in orthogonal planes. This approach assists the interventional cardiologist in directing the puncture toward the posteroinferior portion of the IAS, away from the AA and toward the IVC (red arrow). B) 3D reconstruction (3D Zoom) demonstrating tenting of the IAS caused by the transseptal needle immediately before septal traversal (red arrow). C) 3D reconstruction (3D Zoom) demonstrating the pigtail catheter positioned in the AA (red arrow), serving as an anatomical landmark during transseptal puncture. AA: ascending aorta; IAS: interatrial septum; IVC: inferior vena cava; PBMV: percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-gf11.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>A pigtail catheter may be positioned in the aortic root to facilitate determination of the optimal puncture height, thereby reducing the risk of inadvertent aortic perforation. Subsequently, after being repositioned in the left ventricle (LV), the same catheter can be used to measure the transmitral pressure gradient following PBMV<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figure 6C</xref>).</p>
<p>Before transseptal puncture, the echocardiographer should identify and communicate any anatomical variations that may interfere with the procedure, such as an IAS aneurysm, PFO, or a prominent Eustachian valve. Successful traversal of the IAS is confirmed by visualization of the characteristic tenting of the fossa ovalis at the intended puncture site<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> (Video 4B; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figure 6B</xref>).</p>
<p>After successful transseptal puncture, the Inoue guidewire, featuring a pigtail-shaped distal tip, is advanced into the LA. The dilator is then introduced, followed by sequential advancement of the Inoue balloon across the IAS, minimizing the risk of injury to adjacent cardiac structures<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> (Video 5A-B; Figure 7A-B).</p>
<media mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-m05a.mp4">
<label>Video 5</label>
<caption><title>5A) View: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5A.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5A.mp4</ext-link>. 5B) View: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5B.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5B.mp4</ext-link>. 5C) View: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5C.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5C.mp4</ext-link>. 5D) View: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5D.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5D.mp4</ext-link>. 5E) View: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5E.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5E.mp4</ext-link>. 5F) View: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5F.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5F.mp4</ext-link></title></caption>
</media>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Step 2 – Introduction of the balloon delivery system</title>
<p>After the appropriate balloon size has been selected, the Inoue balloon is prepared and assembled. The IAS is then dilated using the 14-Fr rigid dilator included in the Inoue system, allowing advancement of the balloon into the LA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> (Video 5A-F; Figure 7).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Step 3 – Valve dilation and immediate echocardiographic assessment</title>
<p>Inflation of the Inoue balloon is performed in three sequential stages. Using a mixture of saline and iodinated contrast to increase radiopacity, the distal portion of the balloon is inflated first, followed by the proximal portion and, finally, the balloon waist (Video 5C-E; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figure 8C-E</xref>). The balloon waist remains positioned at the level of the mitral valve and represents the region of greatest radial force, responsible for separating the fused commissures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f13">
<label>Figure 8</label>
<caption><title>Steps of Inoue balloon advancement and positioning during PBMV. A) Inoue guidewire with a pigtail-shaped distal tip designed to minimize the risk of LA injury. B) Withdrawal of the guidewire after positioning the Inoue balloon within the LA. C) Advancement of the balloon system toward the mitral valve. D) Positioning of the Inoue balloon with the waist at the level of the mitral valve. E) Inflation of the proximal segment of the balloon within the LA. F) Final appearance of the mitral valve after PBMV, demonstrating an increase in MVA compared with <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 1B</xref>. LA: left atrium; MVA: mitral valve area; PBMV: percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-gf13.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>More specifically, once the Inoue balloon has been positioned within the LA, approximately 2 mL of the saline-contrast mixture is initially injected to produce slight expansion of the distal balloon segment. This maneuver facilitates crossing of the mitral valve and reduces the risk of balloon entrapment within the chordae tendineae (Video 5D; Figure 7D).</p>
<p>After the balloon has crossed the mitral valve and has been positioned within the LV, the distal segment is fully inflated. At this stage, TEE guidance is essential. Failure of the distal segment to assume a fully spherical configuration should raise suspicion of significant resistance from the subvalvular apparatus or entrapment within the chordae tendineae. Once an appropriate spherical configuration has been confirmed, the balloon is gently retracted until the waist is positioned at the level of the mitral valve, after which full inflation is maintained for approximately3-5 seconds (Video 5E; Figure 7E).</p>
<p>Following valve dilation, the balloon is repositioned in the LA, and immediate echocardiographic assessment of the PBMV results is performed. This evaluation should include measurement of the MVA by 3D planimetry, assessment of valve and commissural morphology, characterization of the commissural splitting pattern (symmetric or asymmetric), detection of new or worsened MR, identification of its anatomical location, and evaluation for pericardial effusion, including its hemodynamic consequences. Although transmitral pressure gradients decrease immediately after the procedure, they should be interpreted with caution because they may increase during the subsequent hours as hemodynamic conditions normalize and the effects of anesthetic induction resolve. Therefore, the primary criterion for procedural success remains the achievement of an MVA &gt; 1.5 cm<sup>2</sup>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
<p>In routine practice, the initial balloon inflation is typically performed using a diameter 2-3 mm smaller than the patient&apos;s estimated final balloon diameter. Two or three additional inflations are then performed with progressive increases in balloon volume until the planned diameter is reached, while MR severity is reassessed after each inflation. The development of new or significant worsening of MR constitutes an indication for immediate termination of the procedure, and additional inflations with larger balloon volumes are not recommended.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
<p>Significant MR following PBMV may occur in up to 15% of patients, depending on the diagnostic criteria adopted. According to its anatomical location, MR can be classified into four patterns:</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Isolated commissural: 34.4% of cases.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Commissural MR associated with posterior leaflet involvement: 25.0% of cases.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Central MR resulting from extensive valve opening: 17.0% of cases.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Central MR secondary to rupture or flail of the A2/P2 scallops: 23.4% of cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p></list-item>
</list>
<p>Acute MR is one of the most serious complications of PBMV and may result from inadequate commissural splitting, leaflet perforation, or papillary muscle rupture, frequently requiring surgical intervention. On TEE, the regurgitant jet is often eccentric, potentially leading to underestimation of MR severity. Furthermore, it is important to recognize that the criteria used to quantify chronic MR should not be applied to the assessment of acute MR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<p>The most accurate measurement of MVA is obtained by direct planimetry using 3D TEE. Pressure half-time-derived MVA should not be used immediately after PBMV because acute changes in atrial and ventricular compliance compromise its accuracy. Accordingly, this method becomes more reliable approximately 48-72 hours after the procedure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
<p>At the end of the intervention, the echocardiographer monitors balloon withdrawal to exclude iatrogenic injury and performs a repeat assessment of the IAS to identify residual atrial septal defects resulting from transseptal puncture as well as the presence of pericardial effusion. Small IAS defects with left-to-right shunting are frequently detected by TEE immediately after PBMV and, in most cases, decrease in size progressively or close spontaneously within 6-12 months. In contrast, right-to-left shunting is generally associated with significant pulmonary hypertension and may persist temporarily until pulmonary pressures decline following the procedure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</sec>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Outcomes</title>
<p>Immediate procedural success rates following PBMV are high, exceeding 90% when patients are appropriately selected. Echocardiographic and hemodynamic success is classically defined as the achievement of a final MVA ≥ 1.5 cm<sup>2</sup> in the absence of moderate or severe MR (grade ≥ 2+).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,34</sup> Procedure-related mortality is remarkably low (0%-3%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Improvements in MVA and hemodynamic status are generally sustained in patients with favorable valve anatomy, particularly younger individuals. In this subgroup, event-free survival at 5, 10, and 15 years reaches 89%, 79%, and 43%, respectively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> In contrast, older patients or those with unfavorable valve anatomy, particularly in developed countries, experience less favorable long-term outcomes, with event-free survival rates of 56% at 10 years and 30% at 20 years.</p>
<p>The incidence of periprocedural complications has declined substantially over recent decades. This reduction reflects increasing operator experience, advances in cardiac imaging, and the continuous involvement of the echocardiographer throughout the procedure. The most common complications include cardiac tamponade (0.5%-12%) and embolic events, including stroke (0.5%-5%). Acute myocardial infarction occurs less frequently and is generally attributable to inadequate anticoagulation or embolization to the right coronary artery during the procedure. Structural complications include leaflet laceration, perforation of the cardiac chambers (LA or LV), and rupture of the subvalvular apparatus involving the chordae tendineae and papillary muscles. However, severe MR remains the most clinically significant complication, with an incidence of up to 15%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>Careful patient selection, combined with favorable valve anatomy, is the principal determinant of immediate procedural success and favorable long-term outcomes following PBMV. In this context, a thorough understanding of mitral valve anatomy, with particular attention to the commissures, together with objective assessment of MR severity, is essential for appropriate procedural planning and intraprocedural guidance.</p>
<p>The presence of the echocardiographer in the catheterization laboratory is essential for enhancing procedural safety, particularly during transseptal puncture guidance. Furthermore, immediate echocardiographic assessment after each balloon inflation allows evaluation of commissural splitting, measurement of the MVA, and early detection of new or worsening MR, the principal complication of PBMV.</p>
<p>In developing countries such as Brazil, where RHD remains highly prevalent, PBMV continues to play an established role in the management of rheumatic MS by relieving valvular obstruction, improving quality of life, and, in many cases, delaying the need for surgical intervention.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1"><label>Sources of Funding</label><p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><label>Study Association</label><p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</label><p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4"><label>Use of Artificial Intelligence</label><p>During the preparation of this work, the authors used Gemini 1.5 to create an artistic representation of the fossa ovalis depicted in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref> and the Central Illustration (atrial septal aneurysm and fossa ovalis). After using this tool, the authors reviewed and edited the content as necessary and take full responsibility for the content of the published article.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
<title>Availability of Research Data</title>
<p>The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
</sec>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20260085</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Como Eu Faço o Acompanhamento da Valvoplastia Mitral Percutânea por Balão</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0477-480X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Gripp</surname><given-names>Eliza de Almeida</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>2</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0008-7868-1623</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Lourenço</surname><given-names>Bernardo Nascimento</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7"><sup>3</sup></xref>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-2003-4242</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Carestiato</surname><given-names>Larissa Ribas</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0009-0391-6130</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Ribeiro</surname><given-names>Marcelo Lemos</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7327-1237</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Côrtes</surname><given-names>Leandro Assumpção</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8"><sup>4</sup></xref>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2959-1874</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Rabischoffsky</surname><given-names>Arnaldo</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Universitário Antônio Pedro (HUAP), Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niterói, RJ – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff6">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Pró-Cardíaco, Botafogo, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff7">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Cardiovasculares, Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Fátima, Niterói, RJ – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff8">
<label>4</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia, Laranjeiras, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondência:</label> <bold>Eliza de Almeida Gripp</bold> • Hospital Pró-Cardíaco. Rua General Polidoro, 192. CEP: <postal-code>22280-003</postal-code>. Botafogo, RJ – Brasil E-mail: <email>elizagripp@yahoo.com.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="coi-statement"><label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label><p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label><p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A doença cardíaca reumática (DCR) permanece como importante problema de saúde pública em âmbito mundial, em razão de sua elevada morbimortalidade, acometendo preferencialmente a valva mitral. Embora apresente maior prevalência em países em desenvolvimento, a doença também é diagnosticada, ainda que com menor frequência, em países desenvolvidos. Nesse contexto, a valvoplastia mitral percutânea por balão (VMPB) consolidou-se como uma modalidade terapêutica altamente eficaz para pacientes selecionados, sendo seu sucesso técnico e clínico fortemente dependente de uma criteriosa seleção dos candidatos ao procedimento. O presente artigo tem como objetivo revisar os principais aspectos relacionados à VMPB, desde os critérios ecocardiográficos empregados na seleção dos pacientes até a monitorização intraprocedimento por meio do ecodopplercardiograma transesofágico (ETE).</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Ecocardiografia Tridimensional</kwd>
<kwd>Ecocardiografia Transesofagiana</kwd>
<kwd>Estenose da Valva Mitral</kwd>
<kwd>Cardiopatia Reumática</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<funding-statement><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold> O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<fig id="f14">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>A doença cardíaca reumática (DCR) representa uma das principais causas de doença cardiovascular em todo o mundo, sendo considerada a segunda maior causa de morbimortalidade cardiovascular, atrás apenas da doença cardiovascular aterosclerótica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A prevalência da DCR permanece elevada em países em desenvolvimento; no Brasil e na Índia, por exemplo, estimam-se taxas de 7 e 6 casos por 1.000 escolares, respectivamente. Dados do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística estimam a ocorrência de aproximadamente 10 milhões de episódios anuais de faringoamigdalite no Brasil, resultando em cerca de 30.000 novos casos de febre reumática aguda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Em escala global, estima-se que aproximadamente 30 milhões de crianças e adultos jovens convivam com a forma crônica da doença. Em contraste, a incidência em países desenvolvidos é substancialmente menor, variando de 0,1 a 0,4 casos por 1.000 escolares, conforme descrito nos Estados Unidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>No contexto brasileiro, a ausência de programas efetivos de prevenção da febre reumática impõe expressiva sobrecarga ao Sistema Único de Saúde. Essa deficiência assistencial favorece a progressão para lesões valvares crônicas, entre as quais a estenose mitral (EM) constitui a manifestação mais frequente. Pacientes com EM grave e sintomática apresentam indicação formal de intervenção, que pode ser realizada por via percutânea ou cirúrgica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>Historicamente, antes do advento das técnicas percutâneas, o tratamento padrão da EM consistia na comissurotomia cirúrgica. Inicialmente, o procedimento era realizado por meio da comissurotomia digital, na qual o cirurgião utilizava os próprios dedos para promover a dilatação das comissuras valvares. Posteriormente, com o aperfeiçoamento da técnica, passou-se a utilizar um dilatador mecânico introduzido através da incisão cirúrgica, permitindo uma dilatação mais controlada da valva mitral. A comissurotomia por via fechada, introduzida na década de 1940, foi gradualmente substituída pela cirurgia cardíaca aberta entre o final da década de 1960 e o início da década de 1970, impulsionada pelo desenvolvimento da circulação extracorpórea. Em 1982, Kanji Inoue realizou a primeira valvoplastia mitral percutânea por balão (VMPB), cuja descrição original foi publicada em 1984.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Embora outras técnicas, como a utilização de duplo balão, também tenham sido desenvolvidas, o balão de Inoue consolidou-se como o dispositivo de escolha. Quando criteriosamente indicada, a VMPB apresenta eficácia e durabilidade comparáveis às da comissurotomia cirúrgica, promovendo melhora hemodinâmica e clínica sustentada em curto e longo prazo, com mortalidade em torno de 1%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Embora os dispositivos empregados na VMPB, como os cateteres-balão, tenham sofrido modificações tecnológicas relativamente discretas nas últimas quatro décadas, os avanços nos métodos de imagem transformaram significativamente a realização do procedimento. Nesse contexto, destaca-se o papel do ecodopplercardiograma transesofágico (ETE), especialmente após a incorporação da tecnologia 3D. A elevada qualidade das imagens obtidas pelo ETE, aliada à experiência do hemodinamicista, tornou a VMPB mais segura e eficaz. Na sala de hemodinâmica, a atuação do ecocardiografista é fundamental, sobretudo durante a orientação da punção transeptal, proporcionando maior precisão anatômica e reduzindo os riscos inerentes a uma das etapas mais críticas do procedimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>Avaliação pré-procedimento e planejamento da VMPB</title>
<sec>
<title>Seleção adequada do paciente para o procedimento</title>
<p>O ETE desempenha papel fundamental no diagnóstico, na estratificação anatômica e na seleção criteriosa de pacientes candidatos à VMPB. As principais indicações para o procedimento incluem pacientes com EM grave e anatomia favorável (Classe I, Nível de Evidência B), bem como pacientes sintomáticos com EM grave e elevado risco cirúrgico (Classe I, Nível de Evidência C), desde que não apresentem trombo no átrio esquerdo (AE) ou no apêndice atrial esquerdo (AAE).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>A VMPB também constitui uma alternativa terapêutica segura e eficaz em gestantes com EM grave e anatomia favorável, preferencialmente após a 24ª semana de gestação. Quando realizada com adequada proteção radiológica, por meio de blindagem de chumbo e exposição mínima à radiação, o procedimento apresenta baixa morbimortalidade materna e fetal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em contrapartida, a degeneração da valva mitral decorrente da calcificação do anel mitral não constitui indicação para VMPB, uma vez que sua fisiopatologia não envolve fusão comissural.</p>
<p>A avaliação sistemática da anatomia valvar e a mensuração precisa da área valvar mitral (AVM) constituem os principais pilares para a indicação da VMPB. Atualmente, a definição de EM grave baseia-se na medida da AVM, obtida por métodos quantitativos no ETE 2D ou, de forma mais acurada, por planimetria direta utilizando o ETE 3D.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> A planimetria 3D apresenta maior acurácia e reprodutibilidade em relação ao método 2D, pois permite melhor delimitação do contorno valvar e visualização completa das cúspides e das comissuras<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> (Vídeo 1; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
<media mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-m01a.mp4">
<label>Vídeo 1</label>
<caption><title>1A) Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_1A.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_1A.mp4</ext-link>. 1B) Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_1B.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_1B.mp4</ext-link>. 1C) Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_1C.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_1C.mp4</ext-link>.</title></caption>
</media>
<fig id="f16">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption><title>Principais aspectos da avaliação ecocardiográfica pré-procedimento para VMPB. A) Doppler colorido evidenciando a PISA em paciente com EM pura, sem IM e sem calcificação valvar. B) Reconstrução 3D da valva mitral sob a perspectiva do AE (surgeon&apos;s view), demonstrando fusão comissural praticamente simétrica. C) Mensuração da AVM por reconstrução multiplanar (MultiVue) obtida a partir da imagem 3D, com valor de 1,2 cm<sup>2</sup>. D) Plano transgástrico a 142°, evidenciando o aparato subvalvar e as cordas tendíneas para avaliação de espessamento e calcificação em pacientes com acometimento reumático. AE: átrio esquerdo; AVM: área valvar mitral; EM: estenose mitral; IM: insuficiência mitral; PISA: proximal isovelocity surface area; VMPB: valvoplastia mitral percutânea por balão.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-gf03-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>A avaliação anatômica deve contemplar detalhadamente a morfologia das cúspides, incluindo o grau de espessamento e a presença de calcificação, bem como as características das comissuras. A caracterização da extensão, da simetria da fusão comissural e da distribuição das calcificações é essencial, considerando que o mecanismo de ação da VMPB baseia-se na separação mecânica das comissuras fusionadas, promovendo aumento da AVM. A gravidade e o padrão da fusão comissural correlacionam-se diretamente com o risco de insuficiência mitral (IM) clinicamente significativa após o procedimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Nesse contexto, o ETE 3D revolucionou essa avaliação ao permitir a análise direta e em tempo real das comissuras por meio de uma única aquisição volumétrica da valva mitral, visualizada sob a perspectiva do AE (<italic>surgeon&apos;s view</italic>) (Vídeo 1B; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16">Figura 1B</xref>).</p>
<p>A avaliação do aparato subvalvar também é mandatória. Recomenda-se a aquisição do plano de 142° ao ETE para quantificar o grau de espessamento, fusão e calcificação das cordas tendíneas (Vídeo 1C; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16">Figura 1D</xref>).</p>
<p>Com o objetivo de padronizar a avaliação ecocardiográfica pré-procedimento, diversos escores foram propostos. O escore de Wilkins, descrito em 1988, permanece como o modelo mais amplamente utilizado, avaliando quatro componentes estruturais: mobilidade dos folhetos, espessamento valvar, calcificação e comprometimento do aparato subvalvar. Entretanto, esse escore apresenta limitações importantes, uma vez que não contempla a anatomia comissural e possui menor capacidade preditiva para desfechos tardios, incluindo o desenvolvimento de IM aguda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em resposta a essas limitações, Nunes et al. propuseram o um modelo mais abrangente que incorpora variáveis adicionais, como a AVM, deslocamento apical dos folhetos, razão da área comissural e comprometimento subvalvar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Os desfechos em longo prazo após a VMPB também demonstraram ser fortemente influenciados pela idade do paciente e pela qualidade do resultado imediato obtido com o procedimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<p>Outro aspecto fundamental da avaliação pré-procedimento é a exclusão das contraindicações à VMPB, destacando-se a presença de IM superior ao grau leve. Nesses casos, a gravidade da IM deve ser quantificada preferencialmente por métodos quantitativos recomendados nas diretrizes vigentes, evitando-se a utilização isolada de parâmetros qualitativos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f17">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f17">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption><title>Quantificação ecocardiográfica da IM antes da VMPB. A) Quantificação da IM pelo método da PISA. B) Quantificação da IM pelo Doppler contínuo do jato regurgitante, permitindo o cálculo da EROA e do VR. Os valores obtidos (EROA = 0,09 cm<sup>2</sup> e VR = 12 ml) são compatíveis com IM leve. EROA: effective regurgitant orifice area; IM: insuficiência mitral; PISA: proximal isovelocity surface area; VMPB: valvoplastia mitral percutânea por balão; VR: volume regurgitante.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-gf04-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Outras contraindicações ao procedimento incluem calcificação extensa ou bicomissural da valva mitral, AVM &gt; 1,5 cm<sup>2</sup>, doença valvar aórtica grave concomitante, doença arterial coronariana com indicação de revascularização cirúrgica, estenose ou insuficiência tricúspide significativa associada à dilatação do anel tricúspide, presença de trombo no AE ou no AAE e ausência de fusão comissural.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Exclusão de trombo no AAE e no AE</title>
<p>A pesquisa de trombos no AE, particularmente no AAE, constitui uma etapa mandatória da avaliação pré-procedimento. Essa investigação deve ser realizada tanto no ETE ambulatorial, em conjunto com a mensuração da AVM e a aplicação dos escores de elegibilidade, quanto imediatamente antes da intervenção. A identificação de trombo intracavitário constitui contraindicação absoluta à VMPB, determinando a suspensão do procedimento e o início imediato da terapia anticoagulante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Para otimizar a avaliação do AAE, recomenda-se a utilização da ferramenta biplanar (<italic>X-plane</italic>), que possibilita a aquisição simultânea de planos ortogonais e uma varredura mais abrangente da estrutura, aumentando a sensibilidade para a detecção de trombos (Vídeo 2A).</p>
<media mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-m02a.mp4">
<label>Vídeo 2</label>
<caption><title>Diferentes localizações de trombos no AAE. 2A) ETE em modo biplanar (X-plane), evidenciando trombo (seta vermelha) localizado no corpo do AAE. Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_2A.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_2A.mp4</ext-link>. 2B) Exemplo de trombo (seta vermelha) localizado no óstio do AAE, demonstrado em imagens biplanares (X-plane). Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_2B.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_2B.mp4</ext-link>. C) Trombo volumoso (seta vermelha) envolvendo o corpo e o óstio do AAE. Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_2C.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_2C.mp4</ext-link>. AAE: apêndice atrial esquerdo; ETE: ecodopplercardiograma transesofágico.</title></caption>
</media>
<p>Nos casos de dúvida diagnóstica, particularmente na diferenciação entre trombo, <italic>sludge</italic> (lama) e artefatos, pode-se utilizar agentes de realce ultrassonográfico (ARUs). Embora ainda não existam <italic>softwares</italic> específicos para análise de perfusão com ARUs no ETE, as diretrizes recomendam sua utilização com adaptação dos parâmetros de aquisição, mediante redução do índice mecânico (IM &lt; 0,3). O trombo caracteriza-se pela ausência de preenchimento pelo ARU. Por sua vez, o <italic>sludge</italic>, condição que reflete estase sanguínea e elevado potencial trombogênico, apresenta preenchimento completo do AAE, porém com opacificação lenta, compatível com a redução das velocidades de esvaziamento. Em contraste, a presença isolada de contraste espontâneo resulta em preenchimento homogêneo e rápido do AAE pelo ARU.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>Uma vez confirmado o diagnóstico de trombo pelo ETE, recomenda-se anticoagulação plena com antagonistas da vitamina K, preferencialmente varfarina (Classe I). O período de anticoagulação antes da reavaliação ecocardiográfica varia entre as diretrizes e os estudos disponíveis, situando-se em geral entre 1 e 3 meses. Contudo, a resposta terapêutica é heterogênea. Evidências recentes demonstram que a morfologia do AAE e a localização do trombo constituem importantes preditores de sua resolução. Morfologias do tipo <italic>cauliflower</italic> e <italic>chicken wing</italic>, especialmente quando associadas a trombos localizados no corpo ou na base do AAE, apresentam menor probabilidade de resolução após a anticoagulação. Em contrapartida, a morfologia do tipo <italic>cactus</italic> e trombos restritos à porção apical do AAE estão associados a maiores taxas de resolução completa em até 3 meses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Avaliação da anatomia do septo interatrial</title>
<p>O conhecimento detalhado da anatomia do septo interatrial (SIA) é fundamental para o sucesso e a segurança da punção transeptal, etapa crítica da VMPB. Descrita inicialmente em 1959, a técnica de punção transeptal teve sua utilização amplamente expandida com o desenvolvimento de procedimentos estruturais percutâneos, além da própria VMPB. Para esse procedimento, o local ideal de punção corresponde à porção posteroinferior da fossa oval (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f19">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f19">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption><title>Anatomia do SIA e principais sítios de punção transeptal. A Região I corresponde à porção posterossuperior da fossa oval, preferencialmente utilizada para procedimentos como o reparo transcateter da valva mitral (MitraClip) e o fechamento de leaks paravalvares. A Região II corresponde à porção posteroinferior da fossa oval, considerada o sítio ideal para a punção transeptal durante a VMPB. A Região III corresponde à porção anteroinferior da fossa oval, habitualmente utilizada em procedimentos de isolamento das veias pulmonares. SIA: septo interatrial; VMPB: valvoplastia mitral percutânea por balão.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-gf06-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>O ETE é indispensável para o guiamento da punção, reduzindo o risco de complicações potencialmente graves, como a perfuração inadvertida da raiz da aorta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
<p>Para garantir o posicionamento preciso da agulha, a incidência bicaval (geralmente entre 90° e 110°), associada à modalidade biplanar (<italic>X-plane</italic>), apresenta grande utilidade. Essa técnica permite a visualização simultânea do SIA e da aorta ascendente em eixo curto, fornecendo ao intervencionista referências anatômicas que possibilitam manter o conjunto agulha-cateter afastado dessa estrutura vascular adjacente<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> (Vídeo 3A; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f21">Figura 4A</xref>).</p>
<media mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-m03a.mp4">
<label>Vídeo 3</label>
<caption><title>3A) Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_3A.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_3A.mp4</ext-link>. 3B) Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_3B.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_3B.mp4</ext-link>. 3C) Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_3C.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_3C.mp4</ext-link>.</title></caption>
</media>
<fig id="f21">
<label>Figura 4</label>
<caption><title>Aspectos anatômicos do SIA relevantes para a punção transeptal. A) Reconstrução tridimensional do SIA, obtida por aquisição 3D Zoom sob a perspectiva do AD, evidenciando a anatomia normal da fossa oval, representada pelo dropout, além da VAo e da VCS e da VCI. B) Presença de válvula de Eustáquio redundante, condição que pode dificultar a punção transeptal. C) Aneurisma do SIA, importante variação anatômica a ser reconhecida previamente ao procedimento, por aumentar a complexidade técnica da punção. AD: átrio direito; AE: átrio esquerdo; SIA: septo interatrial; VAo: valva aórtica; VCI: veia cava inferior; VCS: veia cava superior.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-gf08-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Durante essa etapa, o ecocardiografista deve identificar variações anatômicas que possam aumentar a complexidade da punção, como a presença de válvula de Eustáquio proeminente ou aneurisma do SIA. Na presença de aneurisma do SIA, a excessiva mobilidade do septo pode produzir a falsa impressão de que a agulha já alcançou o AE. Entretanto, sob fluoroscopia, observa-se que a agulha permanece no átrio direito, sem que tenha ocorrido a transfixação completa do SIA.</p>
<p>A identificação de forame oval patente (FOP) também representa um aspecto relevante da avaliação pré-procedimento. Embora sua presença possa dificultar a punção transeptal, o FOP pode ser utilizado como via de acesso ao AE quando esse for o único objetivo do procedimento. Em contrapartida, em intervenções como o implante do MitraClip<sup>®</sup> e o fechamento percutâneo do AAE, sua utilização não é recomendada, pois sua elevada mobilidade e localização frequentemente resultam em posicionamento inadequado do sistema de punção<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> (Vídeo 3A; Vídeo 3B; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f21">Figura 4</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Seleção do tamanho adequado do balão</title>
<p>A seleção do tamanho adequado do balão de Inoue é uma etapa crítica da VMPB, uma vez que a escolha inadequada do dispositivo pode resultar em abertura insuficiente das comissuras ou em lesão dos folhetos e do aparato subvalvar, culminando em IM grave com necessidade de tratamento cirúrgico. Tradicionalmente, o diâmetro do balão é estimado por meio da seguinte fórmula baseada na altura do paciente:</p>
<disp-formula id="eq1">
<mml:math id="m2" display="block"><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">D</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">i</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">â</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">m</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">e</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">t</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">r</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">o</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold"> </mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">d</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">o</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold"> </mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">b</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">a</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">l</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">ã</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">o</mml:mi><mml:mtext> </mml:mtext><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">m</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">m</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mtext> </mml:mtext><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">a</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">l</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">t</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">u</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">r</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">a</mml:mi><mml:mtext> </mml:mtext><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">c</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="bold">m</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo><mml:mo>/</mml:mo><mml:mn mathvariant="bold">1</mml:mn><mml:mn mathvariant="bold">0</mml:mn><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mn mathvariant="bold">1</mml:mn><mml:mn mathvariant="bold">0</mml:mn></mml:mrow></mml:math>
</disp-formula>
<p>No entanto, é importante destacar que não existe relação linear entre a altura do paciente e a AVM<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f22">Figura 5A-C</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f22">
<label>Figura 5</label>
<caption><title>Estrutura e sequência de insuflação do balão de Inoue. A) Balão de Inoue evidenciando a porção proximal (1), a cintura (2) e a porção distal (3). A cintura corresponde à região de maior força radial, responsável pela abertura das comissuras durante a VMPB. B-D) Sequência de insuflação do balão durante o procedimento: inicialmente a porção distal, seguida da porção proximal e, por fim, da cintura, promovendo a abertura das comissuras. VMPB: valvoplastia mitral percutânea por balão.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-gf09-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Como alternativa às fórmulas baseadas na altura, o tamanho do cateter-balão pode ser individualizado por meio do ETE. Essa abordagem fundamenta-se na mensuração do diâmetro do anel mitral nos planos apicais de quatro e duas câmaras, preferencialmente durante a mesossístole ou a telessístole. Do ponto de vista anatômico, a medida obtida no plano apical de duas câmaras apresenta especial relevância por corresponder ao maior diâmetro intercomissural da valva mitral, fornecendo um parâmetro mais fidedigno para a seleção do dispositivo e reduzindo o risco de sobredilatação e de IM grave.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
<p>Os balões de Inoue estão disponíveis em diferentes diâmetros, cuja seleção inicial pode ser orientada pela altura do paciente:</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Balão 24 mm: faixa de dilatação de 20-24 mm; recomendado para pacientes com altura ≤ 140 cm.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Balão 26 mm: faixa de dilatação de 22-26 mm; recomendado para pacientes com altura ≤ 160 cm.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Balão 28 mm: faixa de dilatação de 24-28 mm; recomendado para pacientes com altura com 160- 180 cm.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Balão 30 mm: faixa de dilatação de 26-30 mm; recomendado para pacientes com altura &gt; 180 cm.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Procedimento</title>
<sec>
<title>Objetivo</title>
<p>O sucesso da VMPB é definido pela obtenção de AVM &gt; 1,5 cm<sup>2</sup>, sem indução de IM moderada ou importante (grau &gt; 2+). Para alcançar esse objetivo, o ecocardiografista deve conhecer detalhadamente todas as etapas do procedimento e manter comunicação contínua com o intervencionista durante toda a intervenção (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">Figura Central</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Etapas do procedimento</title>
<sec>
<title>Etapa 1 – Punção transseptal guiada por imagem</title>
<p>A primeira etapa da VMPB consiste na punção transeptal, realizada por acesso venoso femoral. A utilização da modalidade biplanar (<italic>X-plane</italic>) no ETE, na incidência bicaval, orienta o intervencionista a realizar a punção na porção posteroinferior do SIA (Vídeo 4A-B; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f24">Figura 6A-B</xref>). Esse posicionamento é fundamental, pois proporciona distância segura da raiz da aorta, altura de trabalho adequada no AE e alinhamento coaxial do sistema em relação à valva mitral.</p>
<media mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-m04a.mp4">
<label>Vídeo 4</label>
<caption><title>4A) Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_4A.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_4A.mp4</ext-link>. 4B) Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_4B.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_4B.mp4</ext-link>. 4C) Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_4C.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_4C.mp4</ext-link>.</title></caption>
</media>
<fig id="f24">
<label>Figura 6</label>
<caption><title>Guiamento ecocardiográfico da punção transeptal durante a VMPB. A) Incidência bicaval associada ao modo biplanar (X-plane), permitindo a visualização simultânea do SIA e da AA em planos ortogonais. Essa abordagem auxilia o intervencionista a direcionar a punção para a porção posteroinferior do SIA, afastada da AA e em direção à VCI (seta vermelha). B) Reconstrução 3D (3D Zoom) evidenciando o tenting do SIA provocado pela agulha de punção imediatamente antes da transfixação (seta vermelha). C) Reconstrução 3D (3D Zoom) demonstrando o cateter pigtail posicionado na AA (seta vermelha), utilizado como referência anatômica durante a punção transeptal. AA: aorta ascendente; SIA: septo interatrial; VCI: veia cava inferior; VMPB: valvoplastia mitral percutânea por balão.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-gf11-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Um cateter <italic>pigtail</italic> pode ser posicionado na raiz da aorta para auxiliar na determinação da altura ideal da punção, reduzindo o risco de perfuração inadvertida da aorta. Posteriormente, quando reposicionado no ventrículo esquerdo (VE), o mesmo cateter pode ser utilizado para mensuração do gradiente transvalvar após a VMPB<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f24">Figura 6C</xref>).</p>
<p>Antes da punção, o ecocardiografista deve identificar e comunicar ao intervencionista eventuais variações anatômicas que possam interferir no procedimento, como aneurisma do SIA, FOP e válvula de Eustáquio proeminente. A transfixação do SIA é confirmada pela visualização da deformação característica (<italic>tenting</italic>) da fossa oval na posição desejada<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> (Vídeo 4B; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f24">Figura 6B</xref>).</p>
<p>Após a transfixação do SIA, introduz-se a guia de Inoue, cuja extremidade distal apresenta configuração em <italic>pigtail</italic>, no interior do AE. Em seguida, realiza-se a passagem sequencial do dilatador e, posteriormente, do balão de Inoue através do SIA, minimizando o risco de laceração das estruturas cardíacas<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> (Vídeo 5A-B; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f26">Figura 7A-B</xref>).</p>
<media mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-m05a.mp4">
<label>Vídeo 5</label>
<caption><title>5A) Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5A.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5A.mp4</ext-link>. 5B) Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5B.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5B.mp4</ext-link>. 5C) Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5C.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5C.mp4</ext-link>. 5D) Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5D.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5D.mp4</ext-link>. 5E) Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5E.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5E.mp4</ext-link>. 5F) Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5F.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3903/ABCImag-2026-0085_AR_Video_5F.mp4</ext-link>.</title></caption>
</media>
<fig id="f26">
<label>Figura 7</label>
<caption><title>Etapas da passagem e do posicionamento do balão de Inoue durante a VMPB. A) Guia de Inoue com extremidade distal em formato de pigtail, desenvolvida para minimizar o risco de lesão do AE. B) Retirada da guia após o posicionamento do balão de Inoue no AE. C) Avanço do sistema balão em direção à valva mitral. D) Posicionamento do balão de Inoue com a cintura ao nível da valva mitral. E) Insuflação da porção proximal do balão no interior do AE. F) Aspecto final da valva mitral após a VMPB, evidenciando aumento da AVM em comparação com a <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16">Figura 1B</xref>. AE: átrio esquerdo; AVM: área valvar mitral; VMPB: valvoplastia mitral percutânea por balão.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-3-e20260085-gf13-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Etapa 2 – Introdução do sistema porta-balão</title>
<p>Após a seleção do tamanho apropriado, o balão de Inoue é preparado e montado. Em seguida, realiza-se a dilatação do SIA utilizando um dilatador rígido de 14 Fr, componente do sistema de Inoue, permitindo a passagem do balão para o AE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> (Vídeo 5A-F; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f26">Figura 7</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Etapa 3 – Dilatação valvar e avaliação ecocardiográfica imediata</title>
<p>A insuflação do balão de Inoue ocorre em três etapas sequenciais. Inicialmente, utilizando uma solução de soro fisiológico e contraste iodado para aumentar sua radiopacidade, insufla-se a porção distal do balão, seguida da porção proximal e, por fim, da cintura do dispositivo (Vídeo 5C-E; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f26">Figura 7C-E</xref>). A cintura do balão permanece posicionada ao nível da valva mitral e corresponde à região de maior força radial, responsável pela separação das comissuras fusionadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
<p>De forma mais detalhada, após o posicionamento do balão de Inoue no AE, realiza-se uma insuflação inicial de aproximadamente 2 ml da solução de soro fisiológico e contraste, promovendo discreta expansão da extremidade distal do balão. Essa etapa facilita o cruzamento da valva mitral e reduz o risco de aprisionamento do balão entre as cordas tendíneas (Vídeo 5E; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f26">Figura 7D</xref>).</p>
<p>Após o cruzamento da valva mitral e o posicionamento do balão no VE, realiza-se a insuflação completa da porção distal. Nesse momento, o acompanhamento pelo ETE é fundamental. Caso essa porção não adquira formato completamente esférico, deve-se suspeitar de resistência significativa do aparato subvalvar ou de aprisionamento entre as cordas tendíneas. Confirmado o formato esférico adequado, realiza-se tração suave do balão até que sua cintura fique posicionada ao nível da valva mitral, procedendo-se, então, à insuflação completa por aproximadamente 3-5 segundos (Vídeo 5E; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f26">Figura 7E</xref>).</p>
<p>Concluída a dilatação, o balão é reposicionado no AE e inicia-se a avaliação ecocardiográfica imediata dos resultados da VMPB. Devem ser analisados a AVM por planimetria 3D, a morfologia da valva e das comissuras, o padrão de abertura comissural (simétrico ou assimétrico), a presença de IM nova ou agravada, sua localização anatômica e a ocorrência de derrame pericárdico, com avaliação de sua repercussão hemodinâmica. Embora os gradientes transvalvares sofram redução imediata após o procedimento, sua interpretação deve ser cautelosa, pois podem aumentar nas horas subsequentes em decorrência da recuperação das condições hemodinâmicas e do término dos efeitos da indução anestésica. Assim, o principal critério de sucesso permanece a obtenção de AVM &gt; 1,5 cm<sup>2</sup>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
<p>Habitualmente, a primeira insuflação é realizada com diâmetro 2-3 mm inferior ao diâmetro final estimado para o paciente. São então efetuadas duas a três insuflações sequenciais, com aumento progressivo do volume do balão até atingir o diâmetro planejado, sempre reavaliando a gravidade da IM após cada insuflação. O surgimento ou agravamento significativo da IM constitui critério para interrupção imediata do procedimento, não sendo recomendadas novas insuflações com volumes maiores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
<p>A IM significativa após a VMPB pode ocorrer em até 15% dos pacientes, dependendo dos critérios utilizados para sua definição. De acordo com sua topografia, pode ser classificada em quatro padrões:</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Comissural isolada: 34,4% dos casos.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Comissural associada ao envolvimento da cúspide posterior: 25,0% dos casos.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Central decorrente de ampla abertura valvar: 17,0% dos casos.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Central secundária à rotura ou flail dos segmentos A2/P2: 23,4% dos casos.28</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>A IM aguda representa uma das complicações mais graves da VMPB, podendo decorrer de abertura inadequada das comissuras, perfuração de folheto ou rotura de músculo papilar, geralmente com necessidade de tratamento cirúrgico. Ao ETE, o jato regurgitante frequentemente apresenta direção excêntrica, o que pode levar à subestimação de sua gravidade. Além disso, é importante ressaltar que os critérios utilizados para a quantificação da IM crônica não devem ser aplicados na avaliação da IM aguda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<p>A mensuração mais acurada da AVM é obtida por planimetria direta utilizando o ETE 3D. O cálculo baseado no <italic>pressure half-time</italic> não deve ser utilizado imediatamente após a VMPB, devido às alterações agudas da complacência atrial e ventricular que comprometem sua acurácia. Assim, esse método torna-se mais confiável após aproximadamente 48-72 horas do procedimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
<p>Ao término da intervenção, o ecocardiografista acompanha a retirada do balão para excluir lesões iatrogênicas e realiza nova avaliação do SIA, pesquisando a presença de comunicação interatrial residual decorrente da punção transeptal, bem como a ocorrência de derrame pericárdico. Pequenos defeitos do SIA com <italic>shunt</italic> esquerda-direita são frequentemente identificados ao ETE imediatamente após a VMPB e, na maioria dos casos, apresentam redução progressiva ou fechamento espontâneo entre 6 e 12 meses. Em contraste, a presença de <italic>shunt</italic> direita-esquerda geralmente está associada à hipertensão pulmonar significativa, podendo persistir temporariamente até a redução das pressões pulmonares após o procedimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Desfecho</title>
<p>As taxas de sucesso imediato da VMPB são elevadas, ultrapassando 90% quando a seleção dos pacientes é criteriosa. O sucesso ecocardiográfico e hemodinâmico da VMPB é classicamente definido pela obtenção de uma AVM final ≥ 1,5 cm<sup>2</sup>, na ausência de IM moderada a importante (grau ≥ 2+).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,34</sup> A mortalidade relacionada ao procedimento é notavelmente baixa (0%-3%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Os ganhos na AVM e a melhora hemodinâmica tendem a manter-se sustentados em pacientes com anatomia valvar favorável, predominantemente indivíduos jovens. Nesse subgrupo, a sobrevida livre de eventos em 5, 10 e 15 anos alcança 89%, 79% e 43%, respectivamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Em contrapartida, pacientes idosos ou com anatomia valvar desfavorável, particularmente em países desenvolvidos, apresentam piores desfechos em longo prazo, com sobrevida livre de eventos de 56% em 10 anos e de 30% em 20 anos.</p>
<p>A incidência de complicações periprocedimento diminuiu substancialmente nas últimas décadas. Essa redução reflete a consolidação da curva de aprendizado dos intervencionistas, aliada aos avanços dos métodos de imagem e à atuação contínua do ecocardiografista durante todo o procedimento. Entre as principais complicações destacam-se o tamponamento cardíaco (0,5%-12%), os eventos embólicos, incluindo o acidente vascular encefálico (0,5%-5%), e mais raramente o infarto agudo do miocárdio, que geralmente decorre de anticoagulação inadequada ou de embolização para a artéria coronária direita durante o procedimento. As complicações estruturais incluem laceração dos folhetos valvares, perfuração das câmaras cardíacas (AE ou VE) e rotura do aparato subvalvar, envolvendo cordas tendíneas e músculos papilares. Entretanto, a complicação de maior relevância clínica permanece a IM grave, cuja incidência pode atingir até 15% dos casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusão</title>
<p>A seleção criteriosa dos pacientes, associada à presença de anatomia valvar favorável, constitui o principal determinante do sucesso imediato e dos bons resultados em longo prazo da VMPB. Nesse contexto, a compreensão detalhada da anatomia valvar, com especial atenção às comissuras, bem como a avaliação objetiva da gravidade da IM, são fundamentais para o adequado planejamento e monitorização do procedimento.</p>
<p>A participação do ecocardiografista na sala de hemodinâmica é essencial para aumentar a segurança da intervenção, sobretudo durante o guiamento da punção transeptal. Além disso, a avaliação ecocardiográfica imediata após cada insuflação do balão permite analisar a abertura das comissuras, mensurar a AVM e identificar precocemente o surgimento ou agravamento da IM, principal complicação da VMPB.</p>
<p>Em países em desenvolvimento, como o Brasil, onde a DCR permanece altamente prevalente, a VMPB mantém papel consolidado no tratamento da EM reumática, possibilitando o alívio da obstrução valvar, a melhora da qualidade de vida e, em muitos casos, o adiamento da intervenção cirúrgica.</p>
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<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn5"><label>Fontes de Financiamento</label><p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><label>Vinculação Acadêmica</label><p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7"><label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</label><p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn8"><label>Uso de Inteligência Artificial</label><p>Durante a preparação deste trabalho, os autores utilizaram Gemini 1.5 para visão artística de fossa oval representado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f19">Figura 3</xref> e na Figura Central (aneurisma e fossa oval). Após o uso da ferramenta, os autores revisaram e editaram o conteúdo conforme necessário e assumem total responsabilidade pelo conteúdo do artigo publicado.</p></fn>
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<title>Disponibilidade de Dados</title>
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