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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcic</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Imagem Cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<issn pub-type="ppub">2318-8219</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiolodia (DIC/SBC)</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20260070i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20260070i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>My Approach to Left Atrial Function: From Basic Assessment to Atrial Stiffness</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0000-4977-4056</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Silva</surname><given-names>Halsted Alarcão Gomes Pereira da</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>analysis and interpretation of the data and writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-4963-2078</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Gomes</surname><given-names>Helder Moura</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>analysis and interpretation of the data and writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0842-8223</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Souza</surname><given-names>Alexandre Costa</given-names></name>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital São Geraldo</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Juína</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MT</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital São Geraldo, Juína, MT – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Metropolitano Dom José Maria Pires</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">João Pessoa</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Metropolitano Dom José Maria Pires, João Pessoa, PB – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital São Rafael</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital São Rafael, Salvador, BA – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address:</label> <bold>Halsted Alarcão Gomes Pereira da SilvaX</bold> • Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia. Rua Dr Dante Pazzanese, 500. Postal code: <postal-code>04012-909</postal-code>. São Paulo, SP – Brazil E-mail: <email>halstedufg@hotmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsible for the review:</label> <p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="coi-statement"><label>Potential conflict of interest</label>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>29</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>39</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<elocation-id>e20260070</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>04</day>
<month>05</month>
<year>2026</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>04</day>
<month>05</month>
<year>2026</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>04</day>
<month>05</month>
<year>2026</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>The left atrium (LA) has historically been considered a passive chamber that conducts blood flow between the pulmonary veins and the left ventricle (LV). Advances in cardiovascular physiology and imaging techniques have highlighted its active role in modulating cardiac output, ventricular diastolic function, and the stratification of various heart diseases. Assessment of the LA has evolved over the years into a multiparametric functional approach, consolidated as an essential component of modern echocardiography. The systematic incorporation of volumetric parameters, atrial strain, and atrial stiffness allows for a more precise characterization of cardiovascular pathophysiology and improves prognostic stratification, thus supporting more informed clinical decisions.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Strain, Left atrium</kwd>
<kwd>Ejection fraction</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<funding-statement><bold>Sources of funding</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="24"/>
<table-count count="10"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="19"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<fig id="f12">
<caption>
<title>Temporal evolution of integrated left atrial analysis: a practical illustration of the technological evolution of echocardiography in the assessment of left atrial function. 2D: two-dimensional; 3D: three-dimensional; A2C: apical two-chamber view; A4C: apical four-chamber view; LA: left atrium.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf12.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>For many years, the left atrium (LA) was analyzed solely as a segment of transition between the pulmonary veins and the left ventricle (LV), traditionally considered the primary pump of the heart. Over time, with a better understanding of the physiology of systolic and diastolic flows, this concept has given way to that of a chamber that plays a fundamental role in maintaining adequate cardiac output. It has likewise been established that alterations related to the LA directly influence pulmonary pressures and right chamber hemodynamics.</p>
<p>This review article provides a discussion ranging from the most basic concepts related to the LA to the new frontiers that have recently emerged with the understanding of the complex mechanics of this chamber in relation to cardiac function (Central Illustration).</p>
<sec>
<title>Left atrial function and anatomy</title>
<p>The LA is located in the most posterior position of the heart, posterior and slightly superior to the right atrium (RA). It is separated from the RA by a fibromuscular wall called the interatrial septum. The posterior part of the LA is smooth and generally receives four pulmonary veins (two superior and two inferior), which return oxygenated blood from the lungs. The anterior portion of the LA is trabeculated and contains pectinate muscles, which are less numerous than those of the RA.</p>
<p>The LA fulfills three main physiological functions that influence the filling and performance of the LV (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Phases of left atrial function throughout the cardiac cycle. The reservoir, conduit, and contraction phases are shown considering a volume × time curve. LA: left atrium. Source: The authors.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p><bold>Reservoir function:</bold> During this phase, the LA functions as a reservoir, receiving blood from the pulmonary veins. It begins with the closure of the mitral valve (isovolumetric contraction), encompassing ventricular systole, and extends until isovolumetric relaxation.</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label> <p><bold>Main modulators:</bold> The reservoir function of the LA is modulated by both biventricular contraction and LA compliance (chamber relaxation and stiffness).</p></list-item>
</list></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Conduit function:</bold> During this phase, the LA acts as a conduit, with flow occurring passively, originating in the pulmonary veins and directed towards the LV. It begins immediately after mitral valve opening, encompassing the initial ventricular relaxation period and diastasis. It ends shortly before atrial contraction (P wave on the electrocardiogram).</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label> <p><bold>Main modulators:</bold> The conduit function of the LA is predominantly modulated by LV relaxation and compliance, as well as early diastolic pressures.</p></list-item>
</list></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Contractile function:</bold> During the contraction phase, the LA empties actively, contributing 20% to 30% of cardiac output in the absence of heart disease. This phase begins at the end of ventricular diastole, during the atrial contraction period.</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label> <p><bold>Main modulators:</bold> LA contractile function is predominantly modulated by LV end-diastolic pressure and the intrinsic contractility of the LA.</p></list-item>
</list></list-item>
</list>
<p>There is currently extensive literature supporting the understanding of the prognostic correlation between LA function and maximum volume in diverse conditions, including atrial fibrillation (AF), heart failure (HF), coronary artery disease, mitral regurgitation, mitral stenosis, diastolic dysfunction, stroke, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, and chronic kidney disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> These data are essential for correct anatomical and functional characterization of this chamber during echocardiographic examination, avoiding erroneous diagnoses and inadequate treatment.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Linear dimensions and area measurements</title>
<p>The first method for quantifying LA dimensions was derived from linear measurements performed using M-mode. This parameter was fundamental for establishing normality and follow-up values, allowing studies to be conducted with more regular measurements and low variability in longitudinal follow-up. The most widely used linear dimension measurement is the anteroposterior diameter of the LA in the parasternal longitudinal axis, initially using M-mode echocardiography, subsequently performed using anatomical M-mode, and more recently guided by two-dimensional (2D) echocardiography.</p>
<p>It is worth noting that assessment of LA size using only the anteroposterior diameter assumes that, when the LA increases in size, all of its dimensions change proportionally, which is often not the case during atrial remodeling.</p>
<p>LA area has emerged as a more accurate analytical parameter than anteroposterior diameter for quantifying the size of both the LA and RA. For this measurement, atrial area planimetry should be performed in the apical two- and four-chamber views. Normal values for these cavities have been standardized and established over the years (LA ≤ 20 cm<sup>2</sup> and RA ≤ 18 cm<sup>2</sup>). Despite this improved accuracy in relation to diameter measurement, area assessment has not been shown to be a perfect substitute given that atrial volume is the ultimate measurement to be obtained. With the progressive improvement of 2D imaging, associated with the automation of volume acquisition and the more robust literature on normal values and prognostic data of atrial volumes, it is currently unnecessary to include LA area in the final report.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>2D echocardiographic assessment of left atrial volumes</title>
<p>Assessment of volumes and their prognostic correlation is supported by robust scientific evidence. Considerations regarding their acquisition and measurement are fundamental to avoid errors in measurement and consequent clinical interpretation.</p>
<p>First, it is necessary to understand that the longitudinal axes of the LV and LA often lie in different planes; consequently, dedicated LA acquisitions from the apical window should be obtained for more reliable measurements of atrial volume. The LA base should be visualized at its maximal diameter, indicating that the image plane passes through the maximum area of the central axis. The length should also be maximized to ensure correct alignment along the true axis of the LA (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Dedicated echocardiographic acquisition of the LA. Left: A schematic drawing of the acquisition planes of the largest LA and LV axes. Right: The same schematic representation on 2D echocardiography in apical two- and four-chamber views. The longitudinal axes drawn for the LA (green line) and the LV (red line) are situated in different planes. LA: left atrium; LV: left ventricle; RA: right atrium; RV: right ventricle. Source: The authors.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Length is measured from the mitral annulus to the superior wall of the LA. Long-axis lengths should not vary by more than 5 mm between the two echocardiographic views. If this variation is greater than 5 mm, the apical images should be reassessed. When tracing the endocardial borders, the LA appendage and pulmonary veins should be excluded from final analysis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>Most ultrasound systems automatically calculate biplanar LA volume, after correctly delineating the atrial endocardium, using both the area-length method and the disc summation method (modified Simpson). For the area-length method, the shorter length obtained (in the two- or four-chamber view) is used to calculate LA volume. In contrast, for the disc summation method, the longer of the two measured lengths is used. It is worth noting that the area-length method consistently produces larger LA volumes than the disk summation method.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>The American Society of Echocardiography currently recommends the disk summation method for calculating LA volume, as it involves fewer geometric assumptions about LA shape. More recently, the semi-automated use of endocardial border tracking has provided volumes that correlate well with volumes acquired by three-dimensional (3D) echocardiography, computed tomography (CT), and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR), demonstrating lower interobserver variability than manual tracing. It is worth emphasizing that, despite the correlation, 2D echocardiographic volumes will always yield smaller values than those acquired by 3D methods. Given that volume calculation varies according to the technique, it is important for laboratories to consistently use the same technique.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>Patient size is one of the main determinants of LA size, and absolute LA volumes are larger in men than in women; therefore, indexing by body surface area partially corrects for this variability. Since 2015, the American Society of Echocardiography guideline for cardiac chamber quantification considers LA volume index values &gt; 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup> to be abnormal. This value was based on observational studies with more than 6,000 patients without a history of AF or valvular heart disease, demonstrating that an indexed volume above 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup> was an independent predictor of death, HF, AF, and stroke (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Calculation of left atrial volume using the biplane method (Simpson) and grading of enlargement according to the 2015 American Society of Echocardiography Guideline. LA: left atrium.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>The main issue with the currently recommended grading values for LA volume (mildly enlarged = 35 to 41 mL/m<sup>2</sup>, moderately enlarged = 42 to 48 mL/m<sup>2</sup>, and severely enlarged &gt; 48 mL/m<sup>2</sup>) is the narrow range between different categories. Consequently, even small measurement errors can result in incorrect classification of the degree of LA enlargement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>A study published by Esther et al. in the <italic>Journal of the American College of Cardiology</italic> in 2022 demonstrated greater accuracy in classifying and stratifying LA dilation when using height-indexed and height-squared values in patients with overweight or obesity. Using individual data from over 17,000 patients, the use of height-indexed values reclassified LA abnormalities in up to 28% of patients when compared to indexing by body surface area, the parameter classically used in clinical practice. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> displays normal values for these parameters.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Normal and left atrial dilation values, considering body surface area, height, and height squared</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="25%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<tbody style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="4"><inline-graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-ingf01.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C58874"/>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C58874"><bold>Normal values</bold></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C58874"><bold>LA dilation</bold></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>LA volume indexed</bold><break/> by body surface area</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Men: ≤ 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup><break/> Women: ≤ 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Men: ≥ 35 mL/m<sup>2</sup><break/> Women: ≥ 35 mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>LA volume indexed</bold><break/> by height</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Men: ≤ 35.7 mL/m<break/> Women: ≤ 33.7 mL/m</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Men: ≥ 35.8 mL/m<break/> Women: ≥ 33.8 mL/m</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>LA volume indexed</bold><break/> by height<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Men: ≤ 18.5 mL/m<sup>2</sup><break/> Women: ≤ 16.5 mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Men: ≥ 18.6 mL/m<sup>2</sup><break/> Women: ≥ 16.6 mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1">
<p>LA: left atrium. Adapted from Davis et al. J Am Coll Cardiol Img, 2022.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>These calculations, even with the various additional indexing corrections, still consider geometric assumptions that underestimate the final volume, which should also be considered in interpretation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>2D echocardiographic assessment of left atrial ejection fraction</title>
<p>After accurate volumetric acquisition of the LA during the cardiac cycle, an important parameter of atrial function can be obtained, namely, left atrial ejection fraction (LAEF). As shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> LAEF, similar to LV ejection fraction, is calculated considering volumetric variation in different phases, at the following three moments of the cardiac cycle:</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p><bold>Atrial volume at the end of ventricular systole:</bold> maximum LA volume (LAVmax)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Atrial volume immediately before atrial contraction:</bold> LA volume before the P wave (LAVpreA)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Atrial volume at the end of ventricular diastole:</bold> minimum LA volume (LAVmin).</p></list-item>
</list>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figure 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Left atrial volumes throughout the cardiac cycle: LAVmax (end of T wave), LAVpreA (before P wave), and LAVmin (R wave). LA: left atrium; LAVmax: maximum left atrial volume; LAVmin: minimum left atrial volume; LAVpreA: left atrial volume immediately before atrial contraction.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf04.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Based on these volumes, the following three main values are obtained: total ejection fraction (reservoir) derived from LAVmax and LAVmin, passive ejection fraction (conduit) derived from LAVmax and LAVpreA, and active ejection fraction (contraction) derived from LAVpreA and LAVmin, according to the formulas below:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p><bold>Total LAEF (global reservoir function) = (LAVmax – LAVmin) / LAVmax × 100</bold></p></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Passive LAEF = (LAVmax – LAVpreA) / LAVmax × 100</bold></p></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Active LAEF = (LAVpreA – LAVmin) / LAVpreA × 100</bold></p></list-item>
</list>
<p><bold>Note:</bold> In the literature, ejection fraction and emptying fraction can be found as equivalent terms.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref> illustrates an example of LA volume calculation, as well as the derivation of LAEF, which showed the strongest prognostic correlation in most studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f5">
<label>Figure 5</label>
<caption>
<title>Biplane tracing of the LA and calculation of the total ejection fraction, which in this case is preserved. 2C: two-chamber view; 4C: four-chamber view; LA: left atrium; LAEF: left atrial ejection fraction; LAVmax: maximum left atrial volume; LAVmin: minimum left atrial volume; LAVpreA: left atrial volume immediately before atrial contraction.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf05.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>It is worth noting that the active ejection fraction, as it depends on atrial contraction, cannot be assessed in the absence of sinus rhythm.</p>
<p>These parameters can be assessed using different imaging techniques: 2D and 3D echocardiography, CT, or CMR. Using dedicated software for quantifying LA volume, volumetric and functional assessment at different stages has become more accurate, reproducible, and less time-consuming compared to classic 2D analysis.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tables 2</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">3</xref> show the normal values for LA volumes and function according to published data from a study conducted by the World Alliance Societies of Echocardiography. Despite these international data, it is important to emphasize that reference values for analysis of atrial function by 2D and 3D methods have not yet been standardized and incorporated into echocardiography guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Table 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Comparison of left atrial volumetric and functional parameters between 2D and 3D methods (WASE Study, 2022)</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Normal values for LA size and function derived from 1,765 healthy adults (results from the World Alliance Societies of Echocardiography Study)</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Volume parameters</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">2D</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">3D</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Maximum volume (mL)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">45.9 ± 15.7</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">49.9 ± 14.1</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Maximum indexed volume (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">25.7 ± 7.9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">28.1 ± 6.9</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Minimum volume (mL)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">19.0 ± 7.2</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Minimum indexed volume (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">10.7 ± 3.7</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Pre-A volume (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">31.6 ± 10.8</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Indexed pre-A volume (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">17.8 ± 5.5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Reservoir volume (mL)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">30.9 ± 9.0</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Indexed reservoir volume (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">17.4 ± 4.5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Conduit volume (mL)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">18.4 ± 6.4</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Indexed conduit volume (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">10.4 ± 3.4</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2">
<p>Values are shown as mean ± standard deviation. 2D: two-dimensional echocardiography; 3D: three-dimensional echocardiography; LA: left atrium; pre-A: immediately before atrial contraction.</p></fn>
<fn id="TFN3">
<label>*</label>
<p>Data not provided by WASE, 2022.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="t3">
<label>Table 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Reference values for left atrial volumes and ejection fractions (WASE Study, 2022)</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Normal values for LA size and function derived from 1,765 healthy adults (results from the World Alliance Societies of Echocardiography Study)</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Function parameters</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">2D</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">3D</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Ejection fraction (%)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">65.7 ± 8.4</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">62.2 ± 7.7</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Passive ejection fraction (%)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">37.7 ± 11.0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Active ejection fraction (%)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">39.5 ± 9.5</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Reservoir strain (%)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">42.1 ± 10.0</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Conduit strain (%)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">27.7 ± 9.7</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Contractile strain (%)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">14.4 ± 6.3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN4">
<p>Values are shown as mean ± standard deviation.2D: two-dimensional echocardiography; 3D: three-dimensional echocardiography; LA: left atrium.</p></fn>
<fn id="TFN5">
<label>*</label>
<p>Data not provided by WASE, 2022.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>In patients with severe aortic stenosis, LAEF has proven useful for prognostic assessment. Cutoff values below 37% have shown superiority even in relation to maximum velocity and mean gradient for predicting mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>Regarding arrhythmias, when evaluating only patients with AF, reduced LAEF was associated with worse cardiovascular outcomes, regardless of LV ejection fraction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>Considering the clinical importance of LAEF and the increasing availability of this tool in echocardiography equipment, this parameter should be routinely reported.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>3D echocardiographic assessment of left atrial volumes</title>
<p>In the last two decades, 3D echocardiography has become the modality of choice for volumetric quantification of cardiac chambers, with stronger correlation with CMR and less inter- and intraobserver variability. In a multicenter study with 92 patients with varying LA volumes, the agreement for the classification of enlarged LA using a cutoff point &gt; 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup> showed a kappa coefficient of agreement of 0.88 between 3D echocardiography and CMR, compared to a kappa of 0.71 for the same analysis with 2D echocardiography and CMR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>Some of the main advantages of this method include:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p><bold>High accuracy:</bold> No geometric assumptions regarding LA shape, resulting in less underestimation compared to CMR</p></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Greater reproducibility:</bold> Semi-automatic identification of cardiac borders, reducing foreshortened measurements.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Acceptable temporal resolution:</bold> Resolution &gt; 20 volumes per second compared to CT and CMR</p></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Dynamic characterization of size and shape:</bold> Continuous analysis throughout the cardiac cycle, allowing assessment of atrial functional phases.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Single-beat acquisition:</bold> Feasible analysis in patients who present frequent atrial or ventricular arrhythmias</p></list-item>
</list>
<p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 6</xref> shows the volumetric values and calculations performed using specific software for semi-automatic measurement.</p>
<fig id="f6">
<label>Figure 6</label>
<caption>
<title>Semi-automatic 3D volumetric analysis of the LA (example of dedicated software). 3D: three-dimensional; LAEF: left atrial ejection fraction; pre-A: immediately before atrial contraction.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf06.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Similar to 2D echocardiographic assessment of LA volumes, indexing 3D LA volumes to body surface area reduced sex differences. A small, yet significant increase in LA volume on 3D echocardiography has been observed with aging.</p>
<p>Currently, the main limitations of this analysis are temporal resolution, as well as the limited data regarding normal reference and prognostic values among diverse diseases.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Left atrial strain</title>
<p>Assessment of LA function by means of strain allows for more detailed analysis of each phase of atrial physiology. The ability to discriminate between passive and active movement, angle independence, reduced tethering effects, lower load dependence, and tracking of the movement of each segment of the atrial wall allow for a better understanding of atrial function.</p>
<p>LA strain is preferably measured by the speckle tracking method. For this purpose, the endocardial borders of the LA are manually or automatically traced on high-quality 2D images obtained at a frame rate between 50 and 90 frames/second. The need to acquire images in dedicated, non-shortened windows (as opposed to a conventional window optimized for the LV) to obtain LA strain measurements is a relatively recent concept and an essential parameter.</p>
<p>The European Society of Cardiovascular Imaging and the American Society of Echocardiography recommend using the LA strain value obtained from apical two- and four-chamber images, avoiding shortening, although strain analysis from the apical four-chamber window alone is also commonly performed and has proven accurate and reproducible. Dedicated software for LA strain analysis should be used, when available, to reduce variability and measurement errors.</p>
<p>As an additional recommendation, it is advised to obtain an image with the acquisition focused on the LA and a region of interest with a thickness of approximately 3 mm, due to the thin atrial wall.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>Two different temporal trigger approaches are available to quantify LA strain using the speckle tracking method. The first approach uses the beginning of the QRS complex derived from the electrocardiogram as a starting point (R-R trigger) and measures two key types of LA strain:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p><bold>Left atrial reservoir strain (LASr):</bold> Analyzed at the end of LV systole (corresponding to aortic valve closure)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Left atrial contraction strain (LASct):</bold> Analyzed subsequently, corresponding to LA contraction.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>The difference between LASr and LASct represents left atrial conduit strain (LAScd).</p>
<p>The second approach uses the P wave of the electrocardiogram as a starting point (P-P trigger), allowing the measurement of two deformations: the first descending, which corresponds to SAEct, and the second ascending, which corresponds to atrial relaxation and reservoir function.</p>
<p>Atrial parameters are smaller for the P-P interval-gated analysis compared to R-R gating. It is important to emphasize the impossibility of applying this analysis to patients with AF when P-P gating is used. Another point to highlight is that most studies published around the world have used R-R gating, making it the recommended method for measuring LA deformation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 7</xref> shows the main phases of LA deformation using R-R interval-gated analysis as a parameter.</p>
<fig id="f7">
<label>Figure 7</label>
<caption>
<title>Left atrial strain curve (speckle tracking) with R-R gating: reservoir, conduit, and contraction strain.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf07.tif"/>
</fig>
<p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 8</xref> shows both LA strain curve patterns, R-R or P-P interval, depending on the gating chosen.</p>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figure 8</label>
<caption>
<title>Two zero-reference approaches for left atrial strain assessment, and their respective curves. The strain values obtained with both techniques can be mathematically converted to one another. ECG: electrocardiogram; LAScd: left atrial conduit strain; LASct: left atrial contraction strain; LASr: left atrial reservoir strain.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf08.tif"/>
</fig>
<p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figure 9</xref> illustrates the analysis of these three components of LA strain in a patient with hypertension, but without structural heart abnormalities.</p>
<fig id="f9">
<label>Figure 9</label>
<caption>
<title>Analysis of left atrial strain in three phases (arrows: yellow = LASr; red = LAScd; green = LASct) in a patient with hypertension. Analysis was performed using dedicated software to measure left atrial longitudinal strain using automated left atrial endocardial tracking in apical two- and four-chamber views, following the recommendations of the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging/American Society of Echocardiography/Industry Task Force to standardize deformation imaging.13 2C: two-chamber view; 4C: four-chamber view; LA: left atrium; LAScd: left atrial conduit strain; LASct: left atrial contraction strain; LASr: left atrial reservoir strain.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf09.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>The clinical importance of LASr has been reinforced by several studies demonstrating its independent prognostic value. The main studies conducted to date have validated this parameter as a prognostic marker in the following scenarios:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Acute myocardial infarction</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Chronic coronary syndrome</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Cardio-oncology</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>≥ moderate valvular disease (single or multiple valves)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Dilated cardiomyopathy</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Acute or chronic HF</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Cardiac resynchronization therapy</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Athlete&apos;s heart</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Takotsubo syndrome</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>Normal LASr, LAScd, and LASct values are provided in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tables 4</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">5</xref>; however, the only recommended deformation parameter for LA function is global longitudinal deformation or LASr.</p>
<table-wrap id="t4">
<label>Table 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Reference values for left atrial reservoir, conduit, and contraction strain<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Normal values<break/> Meta-analysis including 2,542 healthy individuals</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Phases</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Valores de referência</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>LASr</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><inline-graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-ingf02.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>39%</bold><break/> (95% CI: 38%–41%)<break/>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Values &lt; 23% associated with worse prognosis</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Diastolic guidelines (values &lt; 18% associated with increased LV filling pressures)</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>LAScd</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><inline-graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-ingf03.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>23%</bold><break/> (95% CI: 21%–25%)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>LASct</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><inline-graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-ingf04.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>18%</bold><break/> (95% CI: 16%–19%)</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN6">
<p>CI: confidence interval; LAScd: left atrial conduit strain; LASct: left atrial contraction strain; LASr: left atrial reservoir strain; LV: left ventricle.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="t5">
<label>Table 5</label>
<caption>
<title>Main reference studies on LASr in relation to prognosis in various scenarios<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="3">LASr</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Atrial fibrillation<break/> Her et al. JACC, 2021</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><inline-graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-ingf05.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">LASr &lt; 23% predicts recurrence of AF after ablation.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">HFpEF<break/> Singh et al. JACC, 2022</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><inline-graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-ingf06.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">LASr was an early and sensitive marker of increased LV filling pressure.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Valvular diseases<break/> Addetia et al. JASE, 2023</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><inline-graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-ingf07.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">LASr &lt; 25% in severe mitral regurgitation identified patients with worse prognosis regardless of ejection fraction.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Oncology<break/> Zhang et al. EHJ CV Imaging, 2024</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><inline-graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-ingf08.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">LASr &lt; 25% predicts cardiotoxicity earlier than LV strain.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN7">
<p>HFpEF: heart failure with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction; LASr: left atrial reservoir strain; LV: left ventricle; AF: atrial fibrillation</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Segments adjacent to the mitral annulus, particularly in the inferior wall, normally exhibit higher strain values than those in the mid and superior (roof) segments of the LA. The lowest LA strain values are found in the LA roof, in the region of pulmonary vein insertion, where the heart is anchored to the mediastinum.</p>
<p>Regional differences in LA strain may potentially be useful for assessing LA dyssynchrony, a parameter used as an indirect measure of heterogeneous LA fibrosis and dysfunction that can predict AF recurrence after radiofrequency ablation.</p>
<p>Mechanical dispersion of the LA or LA dyssynchrony, calculated as the standard deviation of the time to maximum strain of LA segments, was also evaluated for both reservoir and contractile strain, and both measures demonstrated value in predicting AF recurrence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>The main limitations are related to the very thin LA walls, the interatrial septum which is often associated with hypermobility or aneurysm, the dependence on geometric assumptions in the regions of pulmonary vein and LA appendage insertion, in addition to the image field being presented in the most distal segment on echocardiographic analysis, and the fact that the LA is located in the most distant field during echocardiographic analysis.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>The LA in assessment of diastolic function</title>
<p>Initially based on invasive hemodynamic studies, the assessment of LV stiffness and compliance constituted the initial pillars for identifying increased filling pressures and the development of LV diastology. In the case of patients with reduced ejection fraction, the elevation of filling pressures was more easily understood in light of systolic dysfunction. In patients with preserved ejection fraction, this interpretation became less straightforward, which prompted a deeper study of diastolic function.</p>
<p>With the incorporation of Doppler into echocardiography, there was a leap in quality in the non-invasive assessment of filling pressures, and studies emerged classifying another type of HF, diastolic HF, a term that would later be superseded by the preferred term heart failure with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction (HFpEF). The first guideline that guided the systematic assessment of LV diastole was published in 2009, already considering atrial variables for this assessment.</p>
<p>The LA and LV are structures arranged in series in the circulatory system, with the atrium serving the antechamber for the LV. Due to this close connection, LV diastolic function has a great influence on LA pressure and function. LA assessment, therefore, provides valuable information that can corroborate the identification and grading of LV diastolic dysfunction. This assessment was initially limited to analysis of transmitral flow and pulmonary venous flow. With the advent of new technologies, the identification of increased LA pressure has been made possible by more accurate variables: tissue Doppler of the mitral annulus during initial ventricular filling (e′ wave) and its relationship with the mitral E wave, with a mean E/e′ ratio greater than 14 being indicative of increased LA pressure. These variables, although important, may not be conclusive in some scenarios such as an E/e′ ratio between 8 and 14, mitral annulus calcification, atrial arrhythmias, and fusion of the E and A waves.</p>
<p>In 2025, the latest update of the guidelines for assessing LV diastolic function expanded the range of tools for this assessment. Among other variables, LASr less than or equal to 18% was included as another data point to be considered in this analysis. This addition was especially useful in the analysis of patients with preserved ejection fraction, a group in which strain alteration has high specificity for identifying increased LA pressure. With these additions and a new assessment flowchart, all patients previously classified as having indeterminate diastolic function (18.8% applying the 2016 criteria) were classified as having normal diastolic function or classified as having some degree of diastolic dysfunction, reducing the likelihood of inadequate quantification of diastolic dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>In practice, this new guideline added parameters that increased the importance of the LA in diastology. The American Society of Echocardiography&apos;s Recommendations for the Evaluation of Left Ventricular Diastolic Function by Echocardiography and for HF With Preserved Ejection Fraction can be consulted for further guidance on diastolic assessment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Left atrial stiffness index</title>
<p>Impaired LA strain is closely related to the clinical presentation and diagnosis of HFpEF. When LA strain is used in conjunction with pulmonary artery occlusion pressure, invasively measured by catheterization, or with the E wave velocity/mitral e′ velocity ratio (E/e′), the LA stiffness index can be derived.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
<p>The LA stiffness index can be estimated using the following two echocardiographic variables:</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p><bold>LASr:</bold> peak longitudinal LA strain</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>E/e′ ratio</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>The E/e′/LASr ratio is a relatively simple and non-invasive parameter to obtain and has shown good correlation with NT-proBNP and conventional echocardiographic diastolic parameters, including E/e′, indexed LA volume, and right ventricular systolic pressure. Kim et al. published an interesting retrospective study in the <italic>Journal of the American College of Cardiology</italic> in 2022, with 307 patients, demonstrating that the LA stiffness index showed stronger prognostic performance in predicting all-cause mortality and HF-related hospitalization than classic diastolic parameters, including E/e′, indexed LA volume, maximum tricuspid regurgitation velocity, and LASr during follow-up. An E/e′/LASr value &gt; 0.26 had an area under the curve of 0.743 (95% confidence interval: 0.681 to 0.806; p &lt; 0.001).</p>
<p>In that study, patients with invasively assessed LV end-diastolic pressure ≥ 16 mmHg and LV ejection fraction ≥ 50%, when presenting with an increased LA stiffness index (&gt; 0.26), showed worse medium- and long-term prognosis compared to patients with the same characteristics and LA stiffness index ≤ 0.26, suggesting the potential use of this parameter as a prognostic biomarker based on echocardiographic imaging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>New technologies (HeartModel)</title>
<p>New technologies have been incorporated into echocardiographic analysis, allowing for greater reproducibility and speed in acquiring images and volumetric data. Volumetric assessments on 3D echocardiography, classically available on ultrasound devices, are presented as semi-automatic measurements, often requiring additional adjustments for each of the analyzed cardiac segments, which would ultimately consume additional time that is often unavailable in clinical practice.</p>
<p>Companies such as Philips and General Electric have developed specific software for accurate and fully automatic measurements with single-click acquisition, allowing even echocardiography operators without extensive experience to easily perform this analysis.</p>
<p>In a feasibility and accuracy study with 159 patients, Tsang et al. demonstrated that the fully automatic software (HeartModel, Philips Healthcare) showed a strong correlation with the semi-automatic measurement with manual correction (r = 0.87 to 0.96). Additionally, the agreement between automated volumetric analysis and CMR was also significant (r = 0.84 to 0.95). The average acquisition and analysis time for LV and LA volumes was 37 seconds for the automatic HeartModel software, compared to 79 seconds for the same acquisition, but with minor manual adjustments made by the operator, and 212 seconds for 2D assessment by Simpson&apos;s method, with a final reduction of 82% in acquisition time.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> An interesting finding of this analysis was that human post-processing changes did not lead to significant improvements compared to automatic volumetric analysis, using CMR as a reference.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figure 10</xref> illustrates acquisition using the Philips HeartModel A.I. software with automatic volumetric evaluation.</p>
<fig id="f10">
<label>Figure 10</label>
<caption>
<title>Automated 3D transthoracic quantification of left heart chambers using specific HeartModel A.I. software. LA: left atrium; 3D: three-dimensional.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf10.tif"/>
</fig>
<p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figure 11</xref> presents a step-by-step approach to structured left atrial (LA) analysis, encompassing the essential data that should be obtained from the echocardiographic study, as well as a summary table highlighting the strengths and limitations of the main parameters discussed throughout the text.</p>
<fig id="f11">
<label>Figure 11</label>
<caption>
<title>Top: Comparison of the pros and cons of different techniques: linear dimensions, LA volumes by the 2D biplane method, LA volumes by the 3D method, and LA reservoir strain. Bottom: Flowchart for a structured analysis of the left atrium using anatomical, functional, and hemodynamic data. These parameters should be reported at the end of the echocardiography report. 2D: two-dimensional; 3D: three-dimensional; LA: left atrium; HFpEF: heart failure with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction; LV: left ventricle. 2D: two-dimensional; 3D: three-dimensional; HFpEF: heart failure with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction; LA: left atrium; LV: left ventricle.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf11.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>LA assessment has evolved from morphological analysis restricted to the anteroposterior diameter to an integrated functional approach that is capable of characterizing the three phases of the atrial cycle (reservoir, conduit, and contraction). This progression, which ranges from 2D volumetry to strain and atrial stiffness index, reflects a conceptual shift in recent literature. The LA is not a passive chamber, but rather an active determinant of cardiac performance and an independent prognostic marker in various clinical settings, such as AF, HF, and valvular heart disease.</p>
<p>The systematic incorporation of these parameters into routine echocardiography is, therefore, clinically justified. The inclusion of LA reservoir strain in the most recent diastolic function guideline exemplifies how this integration is already underway. As new technologies increase reproducibility and reduce acquisition time, LA functional analysis is likely to become consolidated as an essential component of echocardiographic reports, supporting more precise characterization and more informed clinical decision-making.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
<label>Sources of funding</label>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
<label>Study association</label>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
<label>Ethics approval and consent to participate</label>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors. This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
<label>Use of Artificial Intelligence</label>
<p>The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
<title>Data Availability Statement</title>
<p>The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
</sec>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20260070</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Como Eu Faço a Avaliação da Função Atrial Esquerda: Da Jornada Básica à Rigidez Atrial</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0000-4977-4056</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Silva</surname><given-names>Halsted Alarcão Gomes Pereira da</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>análise e interpretação dos dados e redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-4963-2078</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Gomes</surname><given-names>Helder Moura</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>análise e interpretação dos dados e redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0842-8223</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Souza</surname><given-names>Alexandre Costa</given-names></name>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>3</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Juína</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MT</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital São Geraldo, Juína, MT – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">João Pessoa</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Metropolitano Dom José Maria Pires, João Pessoa, PB – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff6">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital São Rafael, Salvador, BA – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondência:</label> <bold>Halsted Alarcão Gomes Pereira da SilvaX</bold> • Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia. Rua Dr Dante Pazzanese, 500. CEP: <postal-code>04012-909</postal-code>. São Paulo, SP – Brasil E-mail: <email>halstedufg@hotmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label> <p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="coi-statement"><label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label>
<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd><italic>Strain</italic>, Átrio esquerdo</kwd>
<kwd>Fração de Ejeção</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<funding-statement><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold> O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<fig id="f24">
<caption>
<title>Evolução temporal da análise integrada do átrio esquerdo: ilustração prática da evolução tecnológica da ecocardiografia na avaliação da função atrial esquerda. 2D: bidimensional; 3D: tridimensional A2C: janela apical de duas câmaras; A4C: janela apical de quatro câmaras; AE: átrio esquerdo; AP: anteroposterior; FEAE: fração de ejeção do AE.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf12-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>O átrio esquerdo (AE) foi por muitos anos analisado apenas como um segmento de transição do fluxo entre as veias pulmonares e o ventrículo esquerdo (VE), a bomba considerada primordial do coração. Com o passar dos anos e o melhor entendimento da fisiologia dos fluxos sistodiastólicos, este conceito deu lugar ao de uma cavidade que apresenta papel fundamental na manutenção de um adequado débito cardíaco, assim como foi sedimentado a compreensão de que alterações relacionadas ao mesmo influenciam diretamente as pressões pulmonares e a hemodinâmica das cavidades direitas.</p>
<p>Neste artigo de revisão, iremos discutir desde os conceitos mais básicos relacionados ao AE, até as novas fronteiras que surgiram com a compreensão da complexa mecânica que esta cavidade apresenta em relação ao funcionamento cardíaco (Figura Central).</p>
<sec>
<title>Conceitos anatômicos e funcionais do AE</title>
<p>O AE está localizado na posição mais posterior do coração, ligeiramente acima e atrás do átrio direito (AD). Ele é separado do AD por uma parede fibromuscular denominada septo interatrial. A parte posterior do AE é lisa e recebe, geralmente, quatro veias pulmonares (duas superiores e duas inferiores), que trazem sangue oxigenado dos pulmões. A porção anterior do AE é trabeculada e contém músculos pectíneos, que são menos numerosos do que os do AD.</p>
<p>Esta câmara atrial cumpre três funções fisiológicas principais que influenciam o enchimento e o desempenho do VE (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p><bold>Função de reservatório:</bold> Nesta fase, o AE funciona como um reservatório, recebendo o sangue oriundo das veias pulmonares. Inicia-se com o fechamento da valva mitral (contração isovolumétrica), englobando a sístole ventricular, e se estende até o relaxamento isovolumétrico.</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label> <p><bold>Principais moduladores:</bold> A função de reservatório do AE é modulada tanto pela contração biventricular quanto pela complacência do AE (relaxamento e rigidez da câmara).</p></list-item>
</list></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Função de conduto:</bold> Nesta fase, o AE atua como um conduto, com o fluxo ocorrendo de maneira passiva, originando-se nas veias pulmonares e dirigindo-se ao VE. Inicia-se imediatamente após a abertura da valva mitral, abrangendo o período de relaxamento ventricular inicial e a diástase. Seu término ocorre pouco antes da contração atrial (onda P no eletrocardiograma).</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label> <p><bold>Principais moduladores:</bold> A função do conduto do AE é predominantemente modulada pelo relaxamento e pela complacência do VE, assim como pelas pressões diastólicas iniciais.</p></list-item>
</list></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Função contrátil:</bold> Nesta fase, há o esvaziamento ativo do átrio, contribuindo com 20% a 30% do débito cardíaco na ausência de cardiopatias. Inicia-se ao final da diástole ventricular, durante o período de contração atrial.</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label> <p><bold>Principais moduladores:</bold> A função de contração do AE é modulada predominantemente pela pressão diastólica final do VE e pela contratilidade intrínseca do AE.</p></list-item>
</list></list-item>
</list>
<fig id="f13">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Fases da função atrial esquerda ao longo do ciclo cardíaco. As fases de reservatório, conduto e contração são demonstradas considerando uma curva de volume × tempo. AE: átrio esquerdo. Fonte: Autores.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Atualmente é extensa a literatura que embasa o conhecimento da correlação prognóstica da função e do volume máximo do AE (VAEmax) em diversas condições como a fibrilação atrial (FA), insuficiência cardíaca (IC), doença coronária, insuficiência mitral, estenose mitral, disfunção diastólica, acidente vascular cerebral (AVC), cardiomiopatia hipertrófica e doença renal crônica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Estes dados são de fundamental importância para a correta caracterização anatômica e funcional desta cavidade durante o exame ecocardiográfico, evitando diagnósticos equivocados e orientações terapêuticas inadequadas.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Dimensões lineares e medidas de área</title>
<p>O primeiro método de quantificação das dimensões do AE foi derivado de medidas lineares realizadas pelo modo M. Esse parâmetro foi fundamental para estabelecer valores de normalidade e acompanhamento, permitindo que estudos fossem realizados com medidas mais regulares e com baixa variabilidade no acompanhamento longitudinal. A medida de dimensão linear mais amplamente utilizada é a do diâmetro anteroposterior do AE no eixo paraesternal longitudinal utilizando a ecocardiografia pelo modo M inicialmente, posteriormente realizada pelo modo M anatômico e mais atualmente guiado pelo ecocardiograma bidimensional (2D).</p>
<p>Vale a pena ressaltar que a avaliação do tamanho do AE utilizando apenas o diâmetro anteroposterior assume que, quando o AE aumenta de tamanho, todas as suas dimensões mudam de forma proporcional, o que na maioria das vezes não é o que realmente ocorre durante o remodelamento atrial.</p>
<p>A área do AE apareceu como um parâmetro de análise mais acurado que o diâmetro anteroposterior para quantificar o tamanho tanto do AE quanto do AD. Para esta medida a planimetria da área atrial deve ser realizada nas janelas apicais de quatro e duas câmaras, e valores de normalidade para essas cavidades foram padronizados e estabelecidos ao longo dos anos (AE ≤ 20 cm<sup>2</sup> e AD ≤ 18 cm<sup>2</sup>). Apesar desta melhor acurácia em relação à medida de diâmetro, a avaliação da área não se mostrou um substituto perfeito já que, em última análise, a medida a ser obtida é o volume atrial. Com a progressiva melhora da imagem 2D, associada à automatização da aquisição dos volumes e à literatura mais robusta existente sobre valores de normalidade e dados prognósticos dos volumes atriais, torna-se desnecessário, atualmente, o relato da área do AE no laudo final.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Avaliação de volumes do AE ao ecocardiograma 2D</title>
<p>A avaliação de volumes e sua correlação prognóstica apresenta sólida evidência científica. Considerações em relação à sua aquisição e medida são fundamentais para evitar erros de aferição e consequentemente interpretação clínica.</p>
<p>Primeiramente, deve-se entender que os eixos longitudinais do VE e do AE frequentemente se situam em planos diferentes; consequentemente, aquisições dedicadas do AE a partir da janela apical devem ser obtidas para medidas mais fidedignas do volume atrial. A base do AE deve estar em seu maior diâmetro de apresentação, indicando que o plano de imagem passa pela área máxima do eixo central. O comprimento também deve ser maximizado para garantir o correto alinhamento ao longo do verdadeiro eixo do AE (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">Figura 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f14">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Aquisição ecocardiográfica dedicada do AE. Na imagem à esquerda, evidenciam-se os planos de aquisição dos maiores eixos do AE e VE em um desenho esquemático. Na imagem à direita, observa-se a mesma representação esquemática ao ecocardiograma 2D nas janelas apicais de 4 e 2 câmaras. Os eixos longitudinais traçados para o AE (linha verde) e o VE (linha vermelha) estão em planos diferentes. AD: átrio direito; AE: átrio esquerdo; VD: ventrículo direito; VE: ventrículo esquerdo. Fonte: Autores.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf02-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Este comprimento é medido a partir do anel mitral até a parede superior do AE. Os comprimentos do eixo longo não devem apresentar variação maior que 5 mm entre as duas janelas ecocardiográficas. Se esta variação for maior que 5 mm, as imagens apicais devem ser reavaliadas. Ao traçar as bordas endocárdicas, o apêndice atrial esquerdo e as veias pulmonares devem ser excluídos da análise final.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>A maioria dos sistemas de ultrassom calcula de forma automática, após o correto delineamento do endocárdio atrial, o volume biplanar do AE usando tanto o método da área-comprimento quanto o método de soma de discos (Simpson modificado). Com o método da área-comprimento, o comprimento mais curto obtido (na janela de duas ou quatro câmaras) é utilizado para o cálculo do volume do AE. Com o método dos discos, a avaliação é contrária, de maneira que o maior dos dois comprimentos acaba sendo o utilizado. Vale ressaltar que o método de área-comprimento produz sistematicamente volumes de AE maiores do que o método da soma de discos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>O método de discos é atualmente o recomendado para calcular o volume do AE segundo a Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia, pois envolve menor suposição sobre a forma geométrica do AE. Mais recentemente, o uso semiautomático do rastreamento de bordas endocárdicas tem fornecido volumes que se correlacionam bem com os volumes adquiridos pelo ecocardiograma tridimensional (3D), tomografia computadorizada (TC) e ressonância magnética cardíaca (RMC), ao mesmo tempo em que demonstram menor variabilidade entre observadores do que o traçado manual. Vale a pena destacar que, apesar da correlação, os volumes ecocardiográficos 2D sempre apresentarão valores menores que os adquiridos por métodos 3D. Como o cálculo do volume varia conforme a técnica, é importante que o laboratório utilize consistentemente a mesma técnica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>O tamanho do paciente é um dos principais determinantes do tamanho do AE, e os volumes absolutos do AE são maiores em homens do que em mulheres, deste modo a indexação pela área de superfície corporal (VAEi) corrige em parte o efeito desta variabilidade. Desde 2015, a diretriz de quantificação de câmaras cardíacas da Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia considera que valores de volumes indexados do AE &gt; 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup> são considerados patológicos. Este valor foi embasado em estudos observacionais com mais de 6 mil pacientes sem antecedentes de FA ou valvopatias, demonstrando que o volume indexado acima de 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup> foi preditor independente de morte, IC, FA e AVC (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f15">Figura 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f15">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Cálculo do volume do AE pelo método biplano (Simpson) e graduação de aumento segundo a diretriz da Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia 2015. AE: átrio esquerdo.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf03-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>O maior problema com os valores de graduação atualmente recomendados (aumento discreto = 35 a 41 mL/m<sup>2</sup>, aumento moderado = 42 a 48 mL/m<sup>2</sup> e aumento importante do AE &gt; 48 mL/m<sup>2</sup>) é a estreita faixa entre as diferentes categorias. Assim, até mesmo pequenos erros de medição podem resultar na classificação incorreta do grau de aumento do AE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>Trabalho publicado por Esther et al. na revista <italic>Journal of the American College of Cardiology</italic> em 2022 demonstrou uma maior acurácia na classificação e estratificação da dilatação do AE ao se utilizar valores indexados pela altura e altura ao quadrado, em pacientes com sobrepeso e obesidade. Considerando dados individuais de mais de 17 mil pacientes, o uso de valores indexados pela altura reclassificou as alterações do AE em até 28% dos pacientes em comparação com a indexação pela superfície corporal, parâmetro classicamente utilizado na prática clínica. Para estes parâmetros, os valores de normalidade são apresentados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 1</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t6">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Valores de normalidade e dilatação do AE considerando a superfície corporal, altura e altura ao quadrado</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="25%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<tbody style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="4"><inline-graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-ingf01-pt.tif"/></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C58874"/>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C58874"><bold>Valor de normalidade</bold></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C58874"><bold>Dilatação do AE</bold></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>Volume indexado AE</bold><break/> Superfície corporal</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Homem: ≤ 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup><break/> Mulher: ≤ 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Homem: ≥ 35 mL/m<sup>2</sup><break/> Mulher: ≥ 35 mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>Volume indexado AE</bold><break/> Altura</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Homem: ≤ 35,7 mL/m<break/> Mulher: ≤ 33,7 mL/m</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Homem: ≥ 35,8 mL/m<break/> Mulher: ≥ 33,8 mL/m</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>Volume indexado AE</bold><break/> Altura<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Homem: ≤ 18,5 mL/m<sup>2</sup><break/> Mulher: ≤ 16,5 mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Homem: ≥ 18,6 mL/m<sup>2</sup><break/> Mulher: ≥ 16,6 mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN8">
<p>AE: átrio esquerdo. Adaptado de Davis et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Esses cálculos, mesmo com as várias correções de indexação adicionais, ainda consideram premissas geométricas que subestimam o volume final, o que também deve ser considerado na interpretação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Avaliação da fração de ejeção do AE ao ecocardiograma 2D</title>
<p>Após a correta aquisição volumétrica do AE durante o ciclo cardíaco, um importante parâmetro de função atrial pode ser obtido, a fração de ejeção do AE (FEAE). Conforme apresentado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16">Figura 4</xref>,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> a FEAE, semelhante à fração de ejeção do VE, é calculada considerando a variação volumétrica em diferentes fases, em três momentos do ciclo cardíaco:</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p><bold>Volume atrial ao final da sístole ventricula</bold>r<bold>:</bold> VAEmax</p></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Volume atrial imediatamente antes da contração atrial:</bold> volume do AE antes da onda P (VAEpre-A)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Volume atrial ao final da diástole ventricular:</bold> volume mínimo do AE (VAEmin).</p></list-item>
</list>
<fig id="f16">
<label>Figura 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Volumes do AE ao longo do ciclo cardíaco: VAEmax (fim da onda T), VAEpre-A (antes da onda P) e VAEmin (onda R). AE: átrio esquerdo; VAEmax: volume máximo do átrio esquerdo; VAEmin: volume mínimo do átrio esquerdo; VAEpre-A: volume do átrio esquerdo imediatamente antes da contração atrial.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf04-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Desses volumes obtêm-se três valores principais: a fração de ejeção total (reservatório) que considera o VAEmax e VAEmin, a fração de ejeção passiva (conduto) considerando o VAEmax e o VAEpre-A, e a fração de ejeção ativa (contração) que avalia o VAEpre-A e o VAEmin, conforme as fórmulas abaixo:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p><bold>FEAE total (função global de reservatório) = (VAEmax – VAEmin) / VAEmax × 100</bold></p></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>FEAE passiva = (VAEmax – VAEpre-A) / VAEmax × 100</bold></p></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>FEAE ativa = (VAEpre-A – VAEmin) / VAEpre-A × 100</bold></p></list-item>
</list>
<p><bold>Observação:</bold> Na literatura, os termos fração de ejeção e fração de esvaziamento podem ser encontrados como equivalentes.</p>
<p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f17">Figura 5</xref> apresenta um caso exemplificando o cálculo dos volumes do AE e suas respectivas fases, assim como a derivação da FEAE que, na maioria dos estudos, foi a análise que apresentou maior correlação prognóstica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f17">
<label>Figura 5</label>
<caption>
<title>Traçado biplano do AE e cálculo da fração de ejeção total, que neste caso está preservada. 2C: duas câmaras; 4C: quatro câmaras; AE: átrio esquerdo; FEAE: fração de ejeção do átrio esquerdo; VAEmax: volume máximo do átrio esquerdo; VAEmin: volume mínimo do átrio esquerdo; VAEpre-A: volume do átrio esquerdo imediatamente antes da contração atrial.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf05-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>É importante notar que a fração de ejeção ativa, por ser dependente da contração atrial, não pode ser avaliada na ausência de ritmo sinusal.</p>
<p>Esses parâmetros podem ser avaliados por diferentes técnicas de imagem: 2D e 3D, TC ou RMC. Usando softwares dedicados para quantificação do volume do AE, a avaliação volumétrica e funcional em diferentes fases tornou-se mais precisa, reprodutível e menos demorada em comparação à análise 2D clássica.</p>
<p>As <xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Tabelas 2</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">3</xref> apresentam os valores de normalidade para volumes e função do AE segundo dados publicados do estudo realizado pelo World Alliance Societies of Echocardiography Study. Apesar destes dados internacionais, é importante ressaltar que valores de referência para análise de função atrial pelos métodos 2D e 3D ainda não foram padronizados e incorporados às diretrizes de ecocardiografia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t7">
<label>Tabela 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Comparação de parâmetros volumétricos e funcionais do AE entre métodos bidimensionais e tridimensionais (WASE Study, 2022)</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Valores normais do tamanho e da função do AE foram derivados de 1.765 adultos saudáveis (Resultados do World Alliance Societies of Echocardiography Study)</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Parâmetros de volume</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">2D</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">3D</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Volume máximo (mL)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">45,9 ± 15,7</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">49,9 ± 14,1</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Volume máximo indexado (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">25,7 ± 7,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">28,1 ± 6,9</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Volume mínimo (mL)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">19,0 ± 7,2</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Volume mínimo indexado (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">10,7 ± 3,7</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Volume pré-A (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">31,6 ± 10,8</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Volume pré-A indexado (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">17,8 ± 5,5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Volume de reservatório (mL)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">30,9 ± 9,0</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Volume de reservatório indexado (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">17,4 ± 4,5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Volume de conduto (mL)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">18,4 ± 6,4</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Volume de conduto indexado (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">10,4 ± 3,4</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN9">
<p>Valores são apresentados como médias ± desvio padrão. 2D: ecocardiograma bidimensional; 3D: ecocardiograma tridimensional; AE: átrio esquerdo; pré-A: imediatamente antes da contração atrial.</p></fn>
<fn id="TFN10">
<label>*</label>
<p>Dados não apresentados no artigo WASE 2022.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="t8">
<label>Tabela 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Valores de referência para volumes e frações de ejeção do AE (WASE Study, 2022)</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Valores normais do tamanho e da função do AE foram derivados de 1.765 adultos saudáveis (Resultados do World Alliance Societies of Echocardiography Study)</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Parâmetros de função</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">2D</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">3D</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Fração de ejeção (%)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">65,7 ± 8,4</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">62,2 ± 7,7</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Fração de ejeção passiva (%)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">37,7 ± 11,0</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Fração de ejeção ativa (%)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">39,5 ± 9,5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">SAEr (%)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">42,1 ± 10,0</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Strain de conduto (%)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">27,7 ± 9,7</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">SAEct (%)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">14,4 ± 6,3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN11">
<p>Valores são apresentados como médias ± desvio padrão. 2D: ecocardiograma bidimensional; 3D: ecocardiograma tridimensional; AE: átrio esquerdo; SAEr: strain de reservatório.</p></fn>
<fn id="TFN12">
<label>*</label>
<p>Dados não apresentados no artigo WASE 2022.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Em pacientes com estenose aórtica grave a FEAE se mostrou útil para avaliação de prognóstico, com um ponto de corte menor que 37% sendo superior inclusive à velocidade máxima e ao gradiente médio para prever mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em relação a arritmias, quando avaliados apenas pacientes com FA, a redução da FEAE se relacionou a piores desfechos cardiovasculares, independentemente da fração de ejeção do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>Considerando a importância clínica da FEAE e a crescente disponibilidade da ferramenta nos aparelhos de ecocardiografia, o registro desse dado deve ser estimulado.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Avaliação de volumes do AE ao ecocardiograma 3D</title>
<p>Nas últimas duas décadas, a ecocardiografia 3D tornou-se a modalidade de escolha para quantificação volumétrica das câmaras cardíacas, com maior correlação com a RMC e menor variabilidade inter e intra-observador. Em um estudo multicêntrico com 92 pacientes com volumes de AE variados, a concordância para a classificação de AE aumentado usando um ponto de corte &gt; 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup> apresentou um coeficiente kappa de concordância de 0,88 entre a ecocardiografia 3D e a RMC, em comparação com um kappa de 0,71 para a mesma análise com o ecocardiograma 2D e a RMC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>Algumas das principais vantagens deste método são:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p><bold>Alta acurácia:</bold> Não assume suposições geométricas em relação ao formato do AE, apresentando menor subestimação em relação à RMC.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Maior reprodutibilidade:</bold> Identificação semiautomática das bordas cardíacas, evitando o encurtamento de medidas.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Aceitável resolução temporal:</bold> Resolução &gt; 20 volumes por segundo em comparação à TC e à RMC.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Caracterização dinâmica do tamanho e forma:</bold> Análise contínua ao longo do ciclo cardíaco avalia as fases da função atrial.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Aquisição em batimento único:</bold> Análise factível nos pacientes que apresentam arritmias atriais ou ventriculares frequentes.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f18">Figura 6</xref> mostra os valores e cálculos volumétricos realizados usando software específico para a medida semiautomática.</p>
<fig id="f18">
<label>Figura 6</label>
<caption>
<title>Análise volumétrica 3D semiautomática do AE (exemplo de software dedicado). 3D: tridimensional; FEAE: fração de ejeção do átrio esquerdo; pré-A: imediatamente antes da contração atrial.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf06-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Semelhante ao volume do AE ao ecocardiograma 2D, a indexação para a área de superfície corporal dos volumes de AE 3D reduziu as diferenças entre os sexos. Foi observado um pequeno, mas significativo, aumento no volume de AE por ecocardiograma 3D com o envelhecimento.</p>
<p>As principais limitações desta análise atualmente são a resolução temporal, assim como a escassez de dados tanto para valores de normalidade quanto valores prognósticos entre as diversas patologias.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Strain do AE</title>
<p>A avaliação da função do AE pelo método de strain permite uma análise mais detalhada de cada uma das fases da fisiologia atrial. A capacidade de discriminação entre movimento passivo e ativo, a independência do ângulo, redução dos efeitos de tethering, menor dependência da carga e o rastreamento da movimentação de cada um dos segmentos da parede atrial permitem um melhor conhecimento da função atrial.</p>
<p>A deformação do AE é preferencialmente medida pelo método de speckle tracking (rastreamento de pontos). Para isso, as bordas endocárdicas do AE são traçadas manualmente ou automaticamente em imagens 2D de alta qualidade obtidas com uma taxa de quadros entre 50 e 90 quadros/segundo. A necessidade de aquisição de imagens em janelas dedicadas e não encurtadas (em contraste com janela convencional otimizada para o VE) para obter medições de deformação do AE é um conceito relativamente recente e um parâmetro essencial.</p>
<p>O grupo de trabalho da Sociedade Europeia de Imagem Cardiovascular e da Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia recomenda usar o valor da deformação do AE obtido a partir de imagens apicais de quatro e duas câmaras, evitando o encurtamento, embora a análise da deformação apenas da janela apical de quatro câmaras também seja comumente realizada e tenha se mostrado acurada e reprodutível. Deve-se utilizar software dedicado para análise de deformação do AE, quando disponível, para reduzir a variabilidade e erros das medições.</p>
<p>Como recomendação adicional, orienta-se obter imagem com a aquisição focada no AE e uma região de interesse (ROI) com espessura de aproximadamente 3 mm, devido à fina espessura parietal da cavidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>Duas abordagens diferentes de gatilho (trigger) temporal estão disponíveis para quantificar a deformação do AE pelo método de speckle tracking. A primeira abordagem utiliza o início do QRS derivado do eletrocardiograma como ponto de partida (gatilho R-R) e mede duas deformações chave do AE:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p><bold>Strain de reservatório (SAEr):</bold> Analisado ao final da sístole do VE (correspondente ao fechamento da valva aórtica)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Strain de contração (SAEct):</bold> Analisado mais tardiamente e corresponde à contração do AE.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>A diferença entre SAEr e SAEct representa o strain de conduto (SAEcd).</p>
<p>A segunda abordagem utiliza a onda P do eletrocardiograma como ponto de partida (gatilho P-P), permitindo a medição de duas deformações, a primeira descendente, que corresponde ao SAEct, e a segunda ascendente, que corresponde ao relaxamento atrial e à função de reservatório.</p>
<p>Nota-se que os parâmetros atriais são menores para a análise gateada pelo intervalo P-P em comparação ao gating R-R. É importante ressaltar a impossibilidade de aplicação desta análise aos pacientes com FA quando o gating P-P é utilizado. Outro dado a ser ressaltado é que a maioria dos estudos publicados mundialmente utilizou o gating R-R, tornando este o método recomendado de fato para medir a deformação do AE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f19">Figura 7</xref> mostra as principais fases da deformação do AE utilizando como parâmetro a análise gateada pelo intervalo R-R.</p>
<fig id="f19">
<label>Figura 7</label>
<caption>
<title>Curva de strain atrial esquerdo (speckle tracking) com gatilho R-R: strain de reservatório, conduto e contração; SAEcd: Strain de conduto do átrio esquerdo; SAEct: Strain de contração do átrio esquerdo; SAEr: Strain de reservatório.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf07-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f20">Figura 8</xref> mostra os dois padrões de curvas de deformação do AE a depender do gating escolhido, se o intervalo R-R ou P-P.</p>
<fig id="f20">
<label>Figura 8</label>
<caption>
<title>Dois tipos de pontos de referência do valor zero, selecionados para a avaliação do strain do AE, e suas respectivas curvas. Os valores de deformação obtidos com qualquer uma das duas técnicas podem ser matematicamente convertidos entre si. ECG: eletrocardiograma; SAEcd: strain de conduto; SAEct: strain de contração; SAEr: strain de reservatório.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf08-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f21">Figura 9</xref> mostra a análise dos 3 componentes do strain do AE em um paciente hipertenso, porém sem alterações estruturais.</p>
<fig id="f21">
<label>Figura 9</label>
<caption>
<title>Análise do strain atrial esquerdo em três fases (setas: amarela = SAEr; vermelha = SAEcd; verde = SAEct) em paciente com hipertensão arterial. Esta análise foi realizada com software dedicado para medir a deformação longitudinal do AE usando rastreamento automatizado do endocárdio do AE na janela apical de quatro e duas câmaras, e seguindo as recomendações da Força-Tarefa da Sociedade Europeia de Imagem Cardiovascular /Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia/Indústria para padronização da deformação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> 2C: duas câmaras; 4C: quatro câmaras; AE: átrio esquerdo; SAEcd: strain de conduto; SAEct: strain de contração; SAEr: strain de reservatório.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf09-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>A importância clínica do SAEr é reforçada por diversos estudos que demonstraram seu valor prognóstico independente. Os principais trabalhos realizados até o presente momento validaram este parâmetro como marcador de prognóstico nos seguintes cenários:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Infarto agudo do miocárdio</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Síndrome coronária crônica</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Cardio-oncologia</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Doença valvar ≥ moderada (uni ou multivalvar)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Cardiomiopatia dilatada</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>IC aguda e crônica</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Terapia de ressincronização cardíaca</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Coração de atleta</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Takotsubo</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>Os valores de normalidade para o SAEr, SAEcd e SAEct estão citados nas <xref ref-type="table" rid="t9">Tabelas 4</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t10">5</xref>, porém o único parâmetro de deformação recomendado da função do AE é a deformação longitudinal global ou SAEr.</p>
<table-wrap id="t9">
<label>Tabela 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Valores de referência para o SAEr, conduto e contração do AE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Valores de normalidade<break/> Metanálise incluindo 2.542 indivíduos saudáveis</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Fases</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Valores de referência</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>SAEr</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><inline-graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-ingf02-pt.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>39%</bold><break/> (IC 95%: 38%–41%)<break/>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Valores &lt; 23% associados a pior prognóstico</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Diretrizes de diástole (valores &lt; 18% associados com aumento das pressões de enchimento do VE)</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>SAEcd</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><inline-graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-ingf03-pt.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>23%</bold><break/> (IC 95%: 21%–25%)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>SAEct</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><inline-graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-ingf04-pt.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>18%</bold><break/> (IC 95%: 16%–19%)</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN13">
<p>IC: intervalo de confiança; SAEcd: strain de conduto; SAEct: strain de contração; SAEr: strain de reservatório; VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="t10">
<label>Tabela 5</label>
<caption>
<title>Principais trabalhos de referência do SAEr do AE em relação ao prognóstico em diversos cenários<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="3">SAEr</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Fibrilação atrial<break/> Her et al. JACC, 2021</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><inline-graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-ingf05-pt.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">SAEr &lt; 23% prediz recorrência de FA após ablação.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">ICFEp<break/> Singh et al. JACC, 2022</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><inline-graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-ingf06-pt.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">SAEr foi um marcador precoce e sensível de aumento de pressão de enchimento do VE.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Valvopatias<break/> Addetia et al. JASE, 2023</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><inline-graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-ingf07-pt.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">SAEr &lt; 25% em IM grave identificou pacientes com pior prognóstico independentemente da fração de ejeção.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Oncologia<break/> Zhang et al. EHJ CV Imaging, 2024</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><inline-graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-ingf08-pt.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">SAEr &lt; 25% reduzido prediz cardiotoxicidade de forma mais precoce que o strain do VE.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN14">
<p>ICFEp: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo preservada; IM: insuficiência mitral; SAEr: strain de reservatório; VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Normalmente, os segmentos adjacentes ao anel mitral, particularmente na parede inferior, exibem valores de deformação maiores do que aqueles nos segmentos médio e apical (teto) do AE. Os valores mais baixos de deformação do AE são encontrados no teto do AE, na região de inserção das veias pulmonares, onde o coração está ancorado ao mediastino.</p>
<p>Diferenças regionais na deformação do AE podem ser potencialmente úteis para a avaliação da dissincronia do AE, parâmetro este utilizado como uma medida indireta da fibrose heterogênea do AE e da disfunção que pode prever a recorrência de FA após ablação por radiofrequência.</p>
<p>A dispersão mecânica do AE ou dissincronia do AE, calculada como o desvio padrão do tempo até a deformação máxima para os segmentos do AE, também foi avaliada tanto para a deformação de reservatório quanto para a deformação contrátil, com ambas as medidas demonstrando valor na predição da recorrência de FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>As principais limitações estão relacionadas ao AE apresentar paredes muito finas, ao septo interatrial que muitas vezes está associado a hipermobilidade ou aneurisma, à dependência de presunções geométricas nas regiões de conexão das veias pulmonares e do apêndice atrial com o AE, além do campo de imagem se apresentar no segmento mais distal na análise ecocardiográfica.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>O AE na avaliação da função diastólica</title>
<p>Inicialmente baseada em estudos hemodinâmicos invasivos, a avaliação da rigidez e da complacência do VE constituíram os pilares iniciais para a identificação do aumento das pressões de enchimento e o desenvolvimento da diastologia do VE. No caso de pacientes com redução da fração de ejeção, a elevação das pressões de enchimento era mais facilmente compreendida à luz da disfunção sistólica. Já nos pacientes com fração de ejeção preservada, essa interpretação tornou-se menos direta, o que impulsionou o aprofundamento do estudo da função diastólica.</p>
<p>Com a incorporação do Doppler à ecocardiografia, houve um salto de qualidade na avaliação não invasiva das pressões de enchimento e surgiram trabalhos classificando mais um tipo de IC, a diastólica, termo que depois seria preterido, preferindo-se a denominação IC com fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo preservada (ICFEp). A primeira diretriz que norteou a avaliação sistemática da diástole do VE foi publicada em 2009 e já considerava variáveis atriais para essa avaliação.</p>
<p>O AE e o VE são estruturas dispostas em série no sistema circulatório, com o átrio sendo a antecâmara para o VE. Devido a essa íntima ligação, a função diastólica do VE tem grande influência na pressão e função do AE. O estudo do AE, portanto, nos dá valiosas informações que corroboram para a identificação e graduação da disfunção diastólica do VE. Essa avaliação inicialmente se restringia à análise do fluxo transmitral e fluxo venoso pulmonar. Com o advento de novas tecnologias, a identificação do aumento da pressão AE foi possível por variáveis mais acuradas: o Doppler tecidual do anel mitral durante o enchimento inicial ventricular (onda e′), e a sua relação com a onda E mitral, sendo a relação E/e′ médio maior que 14 um indicativo de aumento da pressão do AE. Essas variáveis, embora importantes, podem não ser conclusivas em alguns cenários como a razão E/e′ entre 8 e 14, na calcificação do anel mitral, arritmias atriais e na fusão das ondas E e A.</p>
<p>Na última atualização das diretrizes para avaliação da função diastólica do VE em 2025, o leque de ferramentas para essa avaliação foi ampliado e, dentre outras variáveis, foi incluído o SAEr menor ou igual a 18% como mais um dado a ser considerado nessa análise. Essa adição foi especialmente útil na análise de pacientes com fração de ejeção preservada, grupo no qual a alteração do strain tem alta especificidade para identificar aumento da pressão do AE. Com esses acréscimos e novo fluxograma de avaliação, todos os pacientes antes classificados como função diastólica indeterminada (18,8% aplicando-se os critérios de 2016) foram classificados em função diastólica normal ou classificados em algum grau de disfunção diastólica, tornando remota a possibilidade da disfunção diastólica não ser adequadamente quantificada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Na prática, essa nova diretriz adicionou parâmetros que aumentaram a importância do AE na diastologia. Para um melhor entendimento da avaliação diastólica, consultar as Recomendações para avaliação da função diastólica do VE e ICFEp da Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Índice de rigidez do AE</title>
<p>A deformação AE prejudicada possui íntima relação com a clínica e com o diagnóstico da ICFEp. Quando a deformação AE é utilizada em conjunto com a pressão de oclusão da artéria pulmonar medida de forma invasiva (cateterismo) ou com a relação de velocidade da onda E/velocidade e′ mitral (E/e′), pode-se derivar o índice de rigidez da AE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
<p>O índice de rigidez do AE pode ser estimado através destas duas variáveis ecocardiográficas:</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p><bold>SAEr:</bold> Pico de deformação longitudinal do AE</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Relação E/e′</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>A relação E/e′/SAEr é um parâmetro relativamente simples e não invasivo de adquirir e demonstrou boa correlação com o NT-proBNP e parâmetros diastólicos ecocardiográficos convencionais, incluindo E/e′, volume do AE indexado e pressão sistólica do ventrículo direito. Kim et al. publicaram um interessante estudo retrospectivo na revista <italic>Journal of the American College of Cardiology</italic> em 2022 com 307 pacientes demonstrando que o índice de rigidez atrial apresentou desempenho prognóstico mais robusto para predizer mortalidade por todas as causas e hospitalização relacionada à IC do que os parâmetros diastólicos clássicos, incluindo E/e′, volume indexado do AE, velocidade máxima da insuficiência tricúspide e SAEr durante o acompanhamento. O valor de E/e′/SAEr &gt; 0,26 apresentou uma área sob a curva de 0,743 (intervalo de confiança de 95%: 0,681 a 0,806; p &lt; 0,001).</p>
<p>Nesse estudo, pacientes com pressão diastólica final do VE avaliado de forma invasiva com valores ≥ 16 mmHg e fração de ejeção do VE ≥ 50%, quando apresentavam índice de rigidez atrial aumentado (&gt; 0,26), apresentam pior prognóstico a médio e longo prazo em comparação com pacientes com as mesmas características e índice de rigidez atrial ≤ 0,26, sugerindo a possível utilização deste parâmetro como um biomarcador prognóstico baseado em imagem ecocardiográfica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Novas tecnolog-ias (HeartModel)</title>
<p>Novas tecnologias têm sido incorporadas à análise ecocardiográfica, permitindo uma maior reprodutibilidade e agilidade na aquisição de imagens e dados volumétricos. As avaliações volumétricas apresentadas na ecocardiografia 3D classicamente disponível nos aparelhos de ultrassom, são apresentadas como medidas semiautomáticas com necessidade muitas das vezes de ajustes adicionais de cada um dos segmentos cardíacos analisados, o que em última análise determina um consumo adicional de tempo, muitas vezes não disponível na prática clínica.</p>
<p>Empresas como a Philips e General Electric desenvolveram softwares específicos para medidas acuradas e totalmente automáticas adquiridas através de um único botão de aquisição, permitindo que mesmo ecocardiografistas sem grande experiência possam facilmente realizar esta análise ecocardiográfica.</p>
<p>Tsang et al. demonstraram, em estudo de factibilidade e acurácia com 159 pacientes, que o software totalmente automático (HeartModel, Philips Healthcare) apresentou forte correlação com a medida semiautomática com correção manual (r = 0,87 a 0,96). Adicionalmente, a concordância entre a análise volumétrica automatizada e a RMC também foi significativa (r = 0,84 a 0,95). O tempo médio de aquisição e análise dos volumes do VE e AE foi de 37 segundos para o software HeartModel automático, em comparação com 79 segundos para a mesma aquisição, porém com pequenas alterações manuais realizadas pelo operador, e 212 segundos para a avaliação 2D pelo método de Simpson, com uma redução final de 82% do tempo de aquisição.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Um dado interessante dessa análise foi que as alterações humanas de pós-processamento não levaram a melhorias significativas em comparação à análise volumétrica automática, tendo como referência a RMC.</p>
<p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f22">Figura 10</xref> mostra a aquisição do software da empresa Philips HeartModel A.I. com a avaliação volumétrica automática.</p>
<fig id="f22">
<label>Figura 10</label>
<caption>
<title>Quantificação automatizada 3D transtorácica das câmaras cardíacas esquerdas utilizando software específico HeartModel A.I. AE: átrio esquerdo; FEAE: fração de ejeção do AE.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf10-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f23">Figura 11</xref> apresentamos um passo a passo da análise estruturada do AE englobando os dados essenciais que devem ser extraídos ao estudo ecocardiográfico, assim como um quadro resumo dos pontos fortes e fracos, considerando os principais parâmetros descritos ao longo do texto.</p>
<fig id="f23">
<label>Figura 11</label>
<caption>
<title>Superior: Comparação das vantagens e limitações das diferentes técnicas: dimensões lineares, volumes do átrio esquerdo (AE) pelo método biplanar bidimensional (2D), volumes do AE pelo método tridimensional (3D) e strain de reservatório do AE. Inferior: Fluxograma para uma análise estruturada do átrio esquerdo utilizando dados anatômicos, funcionais e hemodinâmicos. Esses parâmetros devem ser apresentados ao final do laudo ecocardiográfico. 2D: bidimensional; 3D: tridimensional; AE: átrio esquerdo; ICFEp: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo preservada; VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-gf11-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusão</title>
<p>A avaliação do AE evoluiu de uma análise morfológica restrita ao diâmetro anteroposterior para uma abordagem funcional integrada, capaz de caracterizar as três fases do ciclo atrial (reservatório, conduto e contração). Essa progressão, que abrange desde a volumetria 2D até o strain e o índice de rigidez atrial, reflete uma mudança conceitual na literatura recente: o AE não é uma câmara passiva, mas um determinante ativo do desempenho cardíaco e um marcador prognóstico independente em cenários distintos, como a FA, a IC e as valvopatias.</p>
<p>A incorporação sistemática desses parâmetros na rotina ecocardiográfica é, portanto, clinicamente justificada. A inclusão do SAEr atrial na diretriz mais recente de função diastólica exemplifica como essa integração já está em curso. À medida que novas tecnologias ampliam a reprodutibilidade e reduzem o tempo de aquisição, a análise funcional do AE tende a se consolidar como componente essencial do laudo ecocardiográfico, apoiando uma caracterização mais precisa e orientando condutas de forma mais fundamentada.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn5">
<label>Fontes de Financiamento</label>
<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
<label>Vinculação Acadêmica</label>
<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
<label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</label>
<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
<label>Uso de Inteligência Artificial</label>
<p>Os autores não utilizaram ferramentas de inteligência artificial no desenvolvimento deste trabalho.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
<title>Disponibilidade de Dados</title>
<p>Os conteúdos subjacentes ao texto da pesquisa estão contidos no manuscrito.</p>
</sec>
</back>
</sub-article>
</article>
