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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcic</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Imagem Cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2318-8219</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiolodia (DIC/SBC)</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="other">01406</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20260046i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Mitral Valve Leaflet Hypoplasia in Adults: Role of Cardiovascular Imaging</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1632-212X</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Soares</surname>
						<given-names>Fábio Luis de Jesus</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>data acquisition</role>
					<role>analysis and interpretation of data</role>
					<role>writing of the manuscript, and critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Cardio Pulmonary Hospital</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Cardio Pulmonary Hospital, Salvador, BA – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>2</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Santa Izabel</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Hospital Santa Izabel, Salvador, BA – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label>Mailing Address:</label><bold>Fábio Luis de Jesus Soares</bold> • Cardio Pulmonary Hospital. Av. Garibaldi, 2199. CEP: <postal-code>40170-130</postal-code>. Ondina, Salvador, BA – Brazil E-mail: <email>fljsoares@yahoo.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="coi-statement">
					<label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
					<p>Marcelo Tavares</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>22</day>
				<month>06</month>
				<year>2026</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2026</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>39</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20260046</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>15</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2026</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>22</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2026</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>25</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2026</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Mitral valve leaflet hypoplasia is a rare congenital anomaly, traditionally described in childhood but increasingly recognized in adults, often as an incidental finding or during the evaluation of mitral regurgitation. Clinical presentation is heterogeneous and depends on leaflet anatomy, the subvalvular apparatus, and the severity of regurgitation. In this narrative literature review, including case reports, case series, and review articles from nationally and internationally recognized journals, epidemiological and clinical aspects are discussed, with particular emphasis on echocardiographic findings. Posterior leaflet hypoplasia is the most common form and may be partial or complete. Three-dimensional echocardiography plays a central role in anatomical assessment, enabling direct measurements of leaflet area and length and helping differentiate true hypoplasia from mimicking entities such as mitral cleft, functional restriction, or subvalvular abnormalities. The estimated prevalence in asymptomatic adults is approximately 1:8,800. Therapeutic management is primarily determined by the severity of mitral regurgitation, with valve repair being feasible only in selected anatomical scenarios. Therefore, refined anatomical understanding, particularly through three-dimensional echocardiography, is essential for accurate diagnosis and appropriate therapeutic planning in this rare yet clinically relevant condition.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords</title>
				<kwd>Mitral Valve</kwd>
				<kwd>Congenital Abnormalities</kwd>
				<kwd>Three-Dimensional Echocardiography</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<funding-group>
				<funding-statement><bold>Sources of Funding</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
			</funding-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="12"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="13"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<fig id="f1">
			<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-gf01.tif"/>
			<p>Mitral Valve Leaflet Hypoplasia in Adults</p>
		</fig>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Congenital abnormalities of the mitral valve (MV) form a spectrum that includes prolapse, clefts, duplications, congenital stenosis, subvalvular apparatus abnormalities, and, more rarely, hypoplasia of one or both leaflets. Among these, posterior leaflet hypoplasia is the most frequently described in the literature and often results in a functional unicuspid mitral valve phenotype.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Historically, mitral leaflet hypoplasia was considered incompatible with life and was predominantly diagnosed in childhood in the context of severe mitral regurgitation (MR). However, over the past two decades, case reports, small series, and literature reviews have described presentations in adults, often asymptomatic or with mild symptoms, identified incidentally on routine echocardiograms<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> (Central Illustration).</p>
			<p>From an imaging standpoint, this is a fascinating entity: the MV may maintain adequate coaptation through compensatory elongation of the opposite leaflet, annular remodeling, and left ventricular (LV) adaptations. When these mechanisms fail, MR of varying degrees predominates, generally without significant stenosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			<p>This article reviews mitral valve leaflet hypoplasia in adults, with special focus on echocardiographic characterization, the role of other imaging modalities, and therapeutic implications.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Prevalence</title>
				<p>Posterior mitral leaflet hypoplasia is considered a rare congenital anomaly. In a prospective analysis of 26,484 echocardiographic examinations, Bar et al. identified three cases of asymptomatic posterior leaflet hypoplasia in young adults, estimating a prevalence of approximately 1:8,800 among asymptomatic patients undergoing echocardiography.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A recent systematic literature review that compiled case reports and case series identified approximately 60–70 cases of posterior leaflet hypoplasia/aplasia in adults, reinforcing the exceptional nature of the condition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Hypoplasia of the anterior leaflet, the mitral annulus, or the entire MV (as in variants of Shone's complex) is even less frequent, with only isolated cases published.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The true prevalence is likely underestimated, as mild forms without significant MR may go unrecognized on routine echocardiography, particularly when attention is focused solely on regurgitation severity rather than detailed valve morphology.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Clinical Presentation</title>
					<p>The clinical spectrum in adulthood is broad. Reported cases range from incidental findings in asymptomatic patients, often evaluated for a soft systolic murmur, to presentations with severe MR, dyspnea, and significant left-sided chamber dilation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Reported clinical manifestations include:</p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>Asymptomatic</bold>: mild hypoplasia with preserved coaptation due to elongated anterior leaflet, without significant MR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>Mild symptoms</bold>: palpitations, fatigue, and exertional dyspnea, generally associated with moderate MR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>Advanced presentations</bold>: dyspnea in higher functional classes, edema, atrial fibrillation, and dilation of the left atrium and LV in the context of severe chronic MR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>In many reports, there is an <bold>association with other congenital heart diseases</bold>, such as: bicuspid aortic valve, ostium secundum atrial septal defect, left ventricular noncompaction cardiomyopathy, and genetic syndromes (e.g., Marfan syndrome).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<p>Atypical ischemic symptoms, such as nonspecific chest pain, have also been described, although generally secondary to chronic volume overload or coexisting comorbidities rather than the hypoplasia itself.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Echocardiographic Findings</title>
					<p>Echocardiography is the cornerstone of the diagnosis of MV leaflet hypoplasia, allowing not only morphological identification but also hemodynamic quantification of the associated MR and evaluation of cardiac chambers.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Two-Dimensional Transthoracic Echocardiography</title>
					<p>Typical findings include (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>):</p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>Marked reduction in the length of one leaflet</bold>, most commonly the posterior leaflet, which may appear as a small rudimentary structure with limited mobility in parasternal long-axis and apical four-chamber views.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>Opposite leaflet (usually anterior) elongated and sometimes thickened</bold>, projecting deeply into the ventricular cavity, often with a myxomatous appearance and occasionally associated prolapse, serving as a compensatory mechanism for coaptation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>Coaptation line displaced</bold> toward the hypoplastic leaflet, resulting in an eccentric MR jet directed toward that side.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>Subvalvular apparatus</bold> generally preserved, although shortening or anomalous chordal insertion into the hypoplastic leaflet may occur, contributing to restriction.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>Absence of significant stenosis</bold>, with preserved valve area and low transmitral gradients in most cases; when stenosis is present, it is usually related to annular hypoplasia or more diffuse MV involvement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<fig id="f2">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Posterior mitral leaflet hypoplasia on transthoracic echocardiography: (A) parasternal long-axis view demonstrating an anterior leaflet disproportionately elongated relative to the posterior leaflet; (B) mitral valve short-axis view demonstrating absence of stenosis; (C) apical two-chamber view demonstrating eccentric jet.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-gf02.tif"/>
					</fig>
					<p>Some authors propose <bold>comparative measurements</bold>: the ratio between anterior and posterior leaflet lengths (typically &gt; 2:1 in cases of severe posterior leaflet hypoplasia) and assessment of the effective coaptation area.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Transesophageal Echocardiography (TEE) and 3D</title>
					<p>The complex mitral anatomy requires systematic analysis, and three-dimensional echocardiography (3D TEE and 3D TTE) has become the most important tool for characterizing hypoplasia.</p>
					<p>Although universal measurement standards have not yet been established, three parameters are consistently reported in series and case reports<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 2</xref>):</p>
					<list list-type="alpha-lower">
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>Leaflet length</bold></p>
							<p>The normal posterior leaflet (PL) measures on average <bold>10–15 mm</bold> (varying with body surface area [BSA]). Findings suggestive of hypoplasia include:</p>
							<list list-type="bullet">
								<list-item>
									<p><bold>Length &lt; 8 mm</bold> (criterion used in several case series)</p>
								</list-item>
								<list-item>
									<p><bold>Anterior-to-posterior leaflet ratio &gt; 2:1</bold>, with &gt; 2.3–2.5:1 frequently cited in significant hypoplasia</p>
								</list-item>
							</list>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>Leaflet area (3D planimetry)</bold></p>
							<p>PL areas &lt; <bold>1.0–1.2 cm<sup>2</sup></bold> are reported in clinically relevant hypoplasia. The anterior leaflet (AL) area is generally preserved or compensatorily increased.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Coaptation height</p>
							<p>Coaptation is displaced toward the hypoplastic leaflet. Abnormal findings include:</p>
							<list list-type="bullet">
								<list-item>
									<p><bold>Coaptation height &lt; 2 mm over PL</bold></p>
								</list-item>
								<list-item>
									<p><bold>Elongated coaptation over the AL, with displacement &gt; 5 mm from the anatomic center</bold></p>
								</list-item>
							</list>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<fig id="f3">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Transesophageal echocardiography demonstrating coaptation displaced toward the posterior leaflet (A), an anterior-to-posterior leaflet ratio &gt; 2:1 (B), and the eccentric jet resulting from ineffective coaptation (C).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-gf03.tif"/>
					</fig>
					<p>Based on these criteria, posterior leaflet hypoplasia may be categorized as partial or total:</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Partial hypoplasia</title>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>PL present but <bold>shortened, restricted,</bold> or <bold>underdeveloped</bold> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 3</xref>);</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Chordae often thin or abnormally inserted;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Compensatory anterior leaflet function, maintaining some degree of coaptation.</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<fig id="f4">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Three-dimensional transesophageal echocardiography with ventricular view of the mitral valve demonstrating partial posterior leaflet hypoplasia (segments P2 and P3 – yellow arrows).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-gf04.tif"/>
					</fig>
					<p>In published cases, predominant hypoplasia includes: • <bold>P2</bold>: most common (40–60% of reported cases);</p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>P1</bold>: less frequent;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>P3</bold>: usually associated with chordal anomalies and subvalvular restriction.</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Total hypoplasia (aplasia)</title>
					<p>Reported in a few adult cases and considered a &quot;true unicuspid mitral valve.&quot;</p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Complete anatomic absence of the PL in the atrial &quot;en face&quot; view (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 4</xref>);</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Aberrant subvalvular insertions;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Coaptation sustained exclusively by the anterior leaflet, often markedly elongated;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Generally associated with severe MR, although mild MR due to anterior leaflet compensation has been described.</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<fig id="f5">
						<label>Figure 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Three-dimensional transesophageal echocardiography with atrial and ventricular views of the mitral valve demonstrating complete posterior leaflet hypoplasia (segments P1, P2, and P3 – yellow arrows).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-gf05.tif"/>
					</fig>
					<p>Furthermore, 3D imaging clearly differentiates <bold>true hypoplasia</bold> from mitral cleft, segmental prolapse, functional restriction, and leaflet elongation without congenital hypoplasia.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Doppler and Regurgitation Quantification</title>
				<p>Color Doppler demonstrates an eccentric jet directed opposite the hypoplastic leaflet, frequently wall-hugging (Coanda effect), which may underestimate MR severity if assessed solely by jet area (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 5</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<fig id="f6">
					<label>Figure 5</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Two-dimensional transesophageal echocardiography demonstrating antegrade (A) and eccentric retrograde flows.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-gf06.tif"/>
				</fig>
				<p>Therefore, the following are recommended:</p>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>Calculation of regurgitant volume and effective regurgitant orifice area (EROA) using the PISA method, when feasible;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Assessment of <bold>vena contracta</bold>, preferably in multiple views;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Integration with indirect parameters: left atrial size, LV diameters and volumes, and pulmonary artery systolic pressure;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>True coaptation area;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>3D regurgitant volume;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Anatomic regurgitant orifice area (3D EROA), useful in eccentric jets;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Complete mitral annular reconstruction (diameters, nonplanar angle, saddle height), frequently altered in significant hypoplasia cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
				<p>In pure hypoplasia with adequate compensation by the opposite leaflet, MR may be absent or mild; in cases with annular dilation and associated prolapse, MR tends to be severe.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Other Imaging Modalities</title>
				<p>Although echocardiography is the first-line method, <bold>cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR)</bold> and <bold>computed tomography (CT)</bold> may complement evaluation in selected situations.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Cardiac Magnetic Resonance</title>
					<p>CMR contributes primarily in three aspects:</p>
					<list list-type="order">
						<list-item>
							<p>Precise volumetric and functional assessment of the LV and left atrium, useful for quantifying the impact of chronic MR and aiding surgical decision-making.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Regurgitation quantification by phase-contrast flow (difference between LV stroke volume and ascending aortic flow), providing a measure independent of echocardiography.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Tissue characterization of the mitral annulus and intervalvular fibrosa region in cases with suspected fibroelastosis, lipomatosis, or fibrosis associated with annular or anterior leaflet hypoplasia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<p>Case reports show that CMR may confirm annular restriction with limited opening even in the absence of a significant gradient and exclude additional structural heart disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Cardiac Computed Tomography</title>
					<p>Cardiac CT may be useful in:</p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Patients with suboptimal echocardiographic windows;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Detailed anatomic assessment of the mitral annulus and its relationships with adjacent structures, particularly in the planning of complex surgeries or concomitant procedures (e.g., aortic valve replacement in patients with bicuspid aortic valve and mitral leaflet hypoplasia).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<p>However, due to the low prevalence of the entity and the high sensitivity of echocardiography (particularly 3D TEE), CMR and CT remain complementary rather than routine modalities.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Treatment</title>
				<p>There are no specific guidelines for managing MV leaflet hypoplasia in adults; decisions generally follow recommendations for primary MR, adapted to the peculiar anatomic context.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Clinical and Echocardiographic Follow-up</title>
				<p>Asymptomatic patients with mild or no MR and without significant chamber dilation may be followed clinically, with serial echocardiography to monitor MR progression, ventricular remodeling, and the emergence of symptoms or arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Follow-up intervals are typically annual or biennial, depending on MR severity and remodeling degree.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Surgical Approach</title>
					<p>Most adult patients described in the literature with severe MR or limiting symptoms have undergone surgical treatment. Options include:</p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Mitral valve repair: technically challenging when the hypoplastic leaflet is very short with limited coaptation area. In some cases, leaflet augmentation with pericardium, annuloplasty, and correction of opposite leaflet prolapse are feasible;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Mitral valve replacement: often the most common solution in scenarios of severe hypoplasia, small annulus, or multiple associated anomalies in which durable repair is unlikely.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<p>Some reports question whether repair should always be attempted, particularly when challenging anatomy increases the risk of early reoperation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Percutaneous Therapy</title>
				<p>Experience with <bold>transcatheter edge-to-edge repair (MitraClip/PASCAL-type procedures)</bold> in leaflet hypoplasia is very limited. The reduced height of the hypoplastic leaflet increases the risk of incomplete leaflet grasp, residual regurgitation, and functional stenosis after clipping.</p>
				<p>In practice, these patients are rarely considered good candidates, except in highly selected cases with favorable opposite leaflet anatomy and high surgical risk. Current literature includes only indirect mentions, without robust series specific to this population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusion</title>
			<p>Mitral valve leaflet hypoplasia in adults, particularly of the posterior leaflet, is a rare, likely underdiagnosed entity with a wide spectrum of clinical presentation - from incidental finding to symptomatic severe MR.</p>
			<p><bold>Transthoracic and transesophageal echocardiography, particularly with three-dimensional reconstruction</bold>, constitute the diagnostic cornerstone, enabling precise characterization of valve morphology, MR quantification, and planning of surgical or percutaneous interventions. Complementary modalities such as CMR and CT add anatomic and functional information in selected situations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
			<p>From a therapeutic standpoint, management follows principles of primary MR, with clinical surveillance in mild cases and surgical indication in symptomatic patients or those with significant structural impact. Mitral repair may be feasible in favorable anatomies, but severe hypoplasia often leads to valve replacement. Evidence for percutaneous therapies remains limited and based on extrapolation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Given the still-limited number of reported cases and series, there is room for <bold>multicenter registries</bold> and <bold>standardized descriptions</bold> to better understand natural history, predictors of decompensation, and long-term outcomes of different therapeutic strategies. For the echocardiographer and cardiovascular imaging specialist, maintaining a high index of suspicion in the presence of &quot;unusual&quot; MV morphology is essential to avoid missing this rare - but clinically relevant - diagnosis.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
				<label>Sources of Funding</label>
				<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
				<label>Study Association</label>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
				<label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</label>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
				<label>Use of Artificial Intelligence</label>
				<p>The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
			<title>Availability of Research Data</title>
			<p>The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
		</sec>
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20260046</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Hipoplasia das Cúspides da Valva Mitral no Adulto: Função da Imagem Cardiovascular</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
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					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1632-212X</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Soares</surname>
						<given-names>Fábio Luis de Jesus</given-names>
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					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
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					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
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					<institution content-type="original">Cardio Pulmonary Hospital, Salvador, BA – Brasil</institution>
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						<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
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					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Hospital Santa Izabel, Salvador, BA – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
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			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2">
					<label>Correspondência:</label><bold>Fábio Luis de Jesus Soares</bold> • Cardio Pulmonary Hospital. Av. Garibaldi, 2199. CEP: <postal-code>40170-130</postal-code>. Ondina, Salvador, BA – Brasil E-mail: <email>fljsoares@yahoo.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="coi-statement">
					<label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label>
					<p>Os autores declaram não haver conflito de interesses relacionado a este manuscrito.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>A hipoplasia das cúspides da valva mitral é uma anomalia congênita rara, tradicionalmente descrita na infância, mas cada vez mais reconhecida em adultos, frequentemente como achado incidental ou na investigação de insuficiência mitral. Sua apresentação clínica é heterogênea e depende da configuração anatômica das cúspides, das alterações do aparato subvalvar e do grau de regurgitação valvar. Nesta revisão narrativa da literatura, incluindo relatos e séries de casos, bem como artigos de revisão de periódicos nacionais e internacionais, discutem-se os aspectos epidemiológicos, clínicos e, principalmente, os achados ecocardiográficos. A hipoplasia da cúspide posterior representa a forma mais comum, podendo ocorrer de maneira parcial ou completa. A ecocardiografia tridimensional tem papel central na avaliação anatômica, permitindo mensurações diretas da área e do comprimento das cúspides e contribuindo para a diferenciação entre hipoplasia verdadeira e condições miméticas, como cleft mitral, restrição funcional ou alterações subvalvares. A prevalência estimada em adultos assintomáticos é de aproximadamente 1:8.800. O manejo terapêutico está diretamente relacionado à gravidade da insuficiência mitral, sendo o reparo valvar factível apenas em anatomias selecionadas. Assim, uma compreensão anatômica refinada, especialmente por meio da ecocardiografia tridimensional, é fundamental para o diagnóstico preciso e o adequado planejamento terapêutico dessa condição rara, porém clinicamente relevante.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave</title>
				<kwd>Valva Mitral</kwd>
				<kwd>Anormalidades Congênitas</kwd>
				<kwd>Ecocardiografia Tridimensional</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<funding-group>
				<funding-statement><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold> O presente estudo não recebeu financiamento específico de agências públicas, comerciais ou sem fins lucrativos.</funding-statement>
			</funding-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<fig id="f7">
				<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-gf01-pt.tif"/>
				<p>Hipoplasia das cúspides da valva mitral no adulto.</p>
			</fig>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>As anomalias congênitas da valva mitral (VM) constituem um espectro amplo que inclui prolapsos, fendas, duplicações, estenose congênita, alterações do aparato subvalvar e, mais raramente, hipoplasia de uma ou ambas as cúspides. Dentre essas, a hipoplasia da cúspide posterior (CP) é a mais descrita na literatura e, em muitos casos, determina um fenótipo funcional de VM unicúspide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Historicamente, a hipoplasia das cúspides mitrais foi considerada incompatível com a vida, sendo diagnosticada predominantemente na infância, em contexto de insuficiência mitral (IM) grave. Contudo, nas últimas duas décadas, relatos de casos, pequenas séries e revisões da literatura descreveram apresentações em adultos, muitas vezes assintomáticas ou com sintomas leves, identificadas incidentalmente em ecocardiogramas de rotina<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura Central</xref>).</p>
				<p>Do ponto de vista da imagem cardiovascular, trata-se de uma entidade particularmente fascinante. A VM pode manter coaptação adequada à custa de alongamento compensatório da cúspide oposta, remodelamento anular e adaptações do ventrículo esquerdo (VE). Quando esses mecanismos se tornam insuficientes, desenvolve-se IM de graus variáveis, geralmente sem estenose associada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>O presente artigo revisa a hipoplasia das cúspides da VM no adulto, com ênfase na caracterização ecocardiográfica, no papel de métodos de imagem adicionais e nas implicações terapêuticas.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Prevalência</title>
					<p>A hipoplasia da CP da VM é considerada uma anomalia congênita rara. Em uma análise prospectiva envolvendo 26.484 exames ecocardiográficos, Bar et al. identificaram três casos de hipoplasia assintomática da CP em adultos jovens, estimando prevalência aproximada de 1:8.800 em pacientes assintomáticos submetidos a ecocardiograma.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Uma revisão sistemática recente, que compilou relatos e séries de casos, identificou cerca de 60–70 casos de hipoplasia ou aplasia da CP descritos em adultos, reforçando o caráter excepcional da condição.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> A hipoplasia da cúspide anterior (CA), do anel mitral ou de toda a VM (como observado em variantes do complexo de Shone) é ainda mais rara, com poucos relatos isolados publicados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A verdadeira prevalência é provavelmente subestimada, uma vez que formas discretas, sem IM significativa, podem passar despercebidas no ecocardiograma de rotina, especialmente quando a avaliação se concentra predominantemente na quantificação da regurgitação e não na análise morfológica detalhada da valva.</p>
					<sec>
						<title>Quadro clínico</title>
						<p>O espectro clínico na idade adulta é amplo. Os casos descritos variam desde achados incidentais em indivíduos assintomáticos, frequentemente avaliados por sopro sistólico discreto, até apresentações com IM grave, dispneia e dilatação significativa das câmaras esquerdas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
						<p>As manifestações clínicas relatadas incluem:</p>
						<list list-type="bullet">
							<list-item>
								<p><bold>Assintomáticas:</bold> hipoplasia discreta com manutenção da coaptação por alongamento da CA, sem IM significativa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p><bold>Sintomas leves:</bold> palpitações, fadiga e dispneia aos esforços, geralmente associadas à IM moderada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p><bold>Quadros avançados:</bold> dispneia em classes funcionais mais elevadas, edema, fibrilação atrial e dilatação do átrio esquerdo e do VE no contexto de IM grave e crônica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p>Em diversos relatos, observa-se <bold>associação com outras cardiopatias congênitas</bold>, como valva aórtica bicúspide, comunicação interatrial tipo ostium secundum, miocardiopatia não compactada e síndromes genéticas, como a síndrome de Marfan.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
							</list-item>
						</list>
						<p>Sintomas de isquemia atípica, como dor torácica inespecífica, também foram descritos, embora geralmente secundários à sobrecarga volumétrica crônica ou a comorbidades coexistentes, e não diretamente à hipoplasia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Achados Ecocardiográficos</title>
						<p>A ecocardiografia constitui o método central para o diagnóstico da hipoplasia das cúspides da VM, permitindo caracterização morfológica detalhada, quantificação hemodinâmica da IM e avaliação das repercussões sobre as câmaras cardíacas.</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Ecocardiograma Transtorácico Bidimensional</title>
						<p>Os achados típicos incluem (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 1</xref>):</p>
						<list list-type="bullet">
							<list-item>
								<p><bold>Redução acentuada do comprimento de uma das cúspides</bold>, mais frequentemente da CP, que pode ser visualizada como pequena lingueta com mobilidade limitada nas projeções paraesternal em eixo longo e apical quatro câmaras.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p><bold>Cúspide oposta (geralmente a anterior) alongada e, por vezes, espessada</bold>, projetando-se profundamente na cavidade ventricular, frequentemente com aspecto mixomatoso e eventual prolapso associado, atuando como mecanismo compensatório de coaptação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p><bold>Linha de coaptação deslocada</bold> em direção à cúspide hipoplásica, frequentemente associada a jato de IM excêntrico dirigido para o lado oposto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p><bold>Aparato subvalvar</bold> geralmente preservado, embora possa ocorrer encurtamento ou inserção anômala de cordoalhas na cúspide hipoplásica, contribuindo para restrição adicional.</p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p><bold>Ausência de estenose significativa</bold>, com área valvar preservada e gradientes transmitrais baixos; quando presente, a estenose costuma estar relacionada à hipoplasia do anel ou ao envolvimento mais difuso da VM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
							</list-item>
						</list>
						<fig id="f8">
							<label>Figura 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Hipoplasia da CP da VM no ecocardiograma transtorácico: (A) eixo longo paraesternal demonstrando CA alongada desproporcional ao tamanho da CP; (B) eixo curto da VM demonstrando ausência de estenose; (C) apical duas câmaras evidenciando jato excêntrico de regurgitação.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-gf02-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
						<p>Alguns autores sugerem <bold>mensurações comparativas</bold>: razão entre os comprimentos das cúspides anterior e posterior (tipicamente &gt; 2:1 nos casos de hipoplasia grave da CP) e a avaliação da área efetiva de coaptação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Ecocardiograma Transesofágico (ETE) e 3D</title>
						<p>A complexidade da anatomia mitral exige uma análise sistematizada, e a ecocardiografia 3D (ETE 3D e TTE 3D) tornou-se a principal ferramenta para a caracterização da hipoplasia.</p>
						<p>Embora não existam critérios universalmente padronizados, três parâmetros são recorrentemente descritos na literatura<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 2</xref>):</p>
						<list list-type="alpha-lower">
							<list-item>
								<p><bold>Comprimento da cúspide</bold></p>
								<p>A CP normal apresenta comprimento médio de <bold>10–15 mm</bold> (variando com área de superfície corpórea [BSA]). Consideram-se sugestivos de hipoplasia:</p>
								<list list-type="bullet">
									<list-item>
										<p><bold>Comprimento &lt; 8 mm</bold> (critério utilizado em diversas séries de casos);</p>
									</list-item>
									<list-item>
										<p><bold>Relação CA/CP &gt; 2:1</bold>, sendo &gt; 2,3–2,5:1 frequentemente associada a hipoplasia significativa.</p>
									</list-item>
								</list>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p><bold>Área da cúspide (planimetria 3D)</bold></p>
								<list list-type="bullet">
									<list-item>
										<p>Áreas de CP &lt; <bold>1,0–1,2 cm<sup>2</sup></bold> têm sido relatadas em casos de hipoplasia relevante. A área da CA geralmente encontra-se preservada ou aumentada de forma compensatória.</p>
									</list-item>
								</list>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p><bold>Altura de coaptação</bold></p>
								<p>A linha de coaptação desloca-se em direção à cúspide hipoplásica. Consideram-se anormais:</p>
								<list list-type="bullet">
									<list-item>
										<p><bold>Altura de coaptação &lt; 2 mm</bold> sobre a CP;</p>
									</list-item>
									<list-item>
										<p><bold>Coaptação alongada sobre a CA</bold>, com linha deslocada &gt; 5 mm do centro anatômico.</p>
									</list-item>
								</list>
							</list-item>
						</list>
						<fig id="f9">
							<label>Figura 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Ecocardiograma Transesofágico evidenciando coaptação deslocada em direção à CP (A), uma relação da CA em relação à CP &gt; 2:1 (B) e o jato excêntrico decorrente da coaptação inefetiva (C).</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-gf03-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
						<p>Com base nesses critérios, a hipoplasia da CP pode ser categorizada como parcial ou total.</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Hipoplasia Parcial</title>
						<list list-type="bullet">
							<list-item>
								<p>CP presente, porém <bold>encurtada, restrita</bold> ou <bold>subdesenvolvida</bold> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 3</xref>);</p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p>Cordoalhas frequentemente finas ou inseridas de forma anômala;</p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p>Função compensatória da CA mantendo certa coaptação.</p>
							</list-item>
						</list>
						<fig id="f10">
							<label>Figura 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Ecocardiograma transesofágico tridimensional com visão ventricular da VM evidenciando hipoplasia parcial da CP (segmentos P2 e P3 – setas amarelas).</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-gf04-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
						<p>Nos casos publicados, a hipoplasia predominante envolve: • <bold>P2</bold>: mais comum (40–60% dos casos relatados);</p>
						<list list-type="bullet">
							<list-item>
								<p><bold>P1</bold>: menos frequente;</p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p><bold>P3</bold>: geralmente associada a anomalias de cordoalhas e restrição subvalvar.</p>
							</list-item>
						</list>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Hipoplasia Total (aplasia)</title>
						<p>Descrita em poucos casos em adultos, sendo considerada uma &quot;VM unicúspide verdadeira&quot;.</p>
						<list list-type="bullet">
							<list-item>
								<p>Ausência anatômica completa da CP na visão &quot;en face&quot; atrial (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 4</xref>);</p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p>Inserções subvalvares aberrantes;</p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p>Coaptação sustentada exclusivamente pela CA, muitas vezes hiperalongada;</p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p>Geralmente associada à IM grave, embora existam relatos de IM discreta decorrente da compensação da CA.</p>
							</list-item>
						</list>
						<fig id="f11">
							<label>Figura 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Ecocardiograma transesofágico tridimensional com visões atrial e ventricular da VM, evidenciando hipoplasia total da CP (segmentos P1, P2 e P3 – setas amarelas).</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-gf05-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
						<p>Além disso, o 3D permite diferenciar claramente <bold>hipoplasia verdadeira</bold> de cleft mitral, prolapso segmentar, restrição funcional, alongamento de cúspides sem hipoplasia congênita.</p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Doppler e Quantificação da Regurgitação</title>
					<p>O Doppler colorido demonstra jato excêntrico dirigido para o lado oposto à cúspide hipoplásica, frequentemente aderido à parede atrial (efeito Coanda), o que pode levar à subestimação da gravidade da IM quando se considera apenas a área do jato (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 5</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>Cálculo do volume regurgitante e orifício regurgitante efetivo (EROA)</bold> pela técnica de PISA, quando viável;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Avaliação de <bold>vena contracta</bold>, preferencialmente em múltiplas janelas;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Integração com parâmetros indiretos, como dimensões do átrio esquerdo, volumes do VE e pressão sistólica da artéria pulmonar;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Área de coaptação real;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Volume regurgitante 3D;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Área do orifício regurgitante anatomicamente (3D EROA), útil em jatos excêntricos;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Reconstrução completa do anel mitral (diâmetros, não planar angle, saddle height), frequentemente alterado nos casos de hipoplasia significativa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<fig id="f12">
						<label>Figura 5</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Ecocardiograma transesofágico bidimensional evidenciando fluxos anterógrado (A) e retrógrado excêntricos.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-gf06-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
					<p>Na hipoplasia isolada com compensação eficaz da cúspide oposta, a IM pode ser ausente ou discreta; entretanto, na presença de dilatação anular e prolapso associado, tende a assumir caráter grave.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Outros Métodos de Imagem</title>
					<p>Embora a ecocardiografia seja o método de primeira linha, a <bold>ressonância magnética cardíaca (RMC)</bold> e a <bold>tomografia computadorizada (TC)</bold> podem desempenhar papel complementar em situações específicas.</p>
					<sec>
						<title>RMC</title>
						<p>A RMC contribui principalmente em três aspectos:</p>
						<list list-type="order">
							<list-item>
								<p><bold>Avaliação volumétrica e funcional precisa</bold> do VE e do AE, auxiliando na quantificação do impacto da IM crônica e na decisão cirúrgica;</p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p><bold>Quantificação da regurgitação por técnica de fluxo de fase</bold> (diferença entre débito do VE e fluxo na aorta ascendente), fornecendo medida independente da ecocardiografia;</p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p><bold>Caracterização tecidual</bold> do anel mitral e da região fibrosa intervalvar em casos com suspeita de fibroelastose, lipomatose ou fibrose associadas à hipoplasia anular ou da CA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
							</list-item>
						</list>
						<p>Relatos de caso demonstram que a RMC pode confirmar restrição do anel mitral com abertura limitada, mesmo na ausência de gradiente significativo, além de excluir cardiopatias estruturais adicionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>TC cardíaca</title>
						<p>A TC cardíaca pode ser útil em:</p>
						<list list-type="bullet">
							<list-item>
								<p>Pacientes com janela ecocardiográfica subótima;</p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p>Avaliação anatômica detalhada do anel mitral e das relações com estruturas adjacentes, particularmente no planejamento de cirurgias complexas ou de procedimentos concomitantes (por exemplo, troca de valva aórtica em pacientes com valva aórtica bicúspide associada à hipoplasia de folheto mitral).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
							</list-item>
						</list>
						<p>No entanto, devido à baixa prevalência da entidade e à alta sensibilidade do eco (particularmente ETE 3D), RMC e TC permanecem métodos complementares e não de rotina.</p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Tratamento</title>
					<p>Não existem diretrizes específicas para o manejo da hipoplasia das cúspides da VM no adulto; as decisões terapêuticas baseiam-se, em geral, nas recomendações para IM primária, adaptadas ao contexto anatômico específico.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Acompanhamento Clínico e Ecocardiográfico</title>
					<p>Pacientes assintomáticos, com IM discreta ou ausente e sem dilatação significativa de câmaras cardíacas, podem ser acompanhados clinicamente, com ecocardiogramas seriados para monitorar progressão da IM, remodelamento ventricular e surgimento de sintomas ou arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Os intervalos de acompanhamento são geralmente anuais ou bianuais, conforme a gravidade da IM e o grau de remodelamento estrutural.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Abordagem Cirúrgica</title>
					<p>A maior parte dos pacientes adultos descritos na literatura com IM grave ou sintomas limitantes foi submetida a tratamento cirúrgico. As opções incluem:</p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>Plastia mitral:</bold> tecnicamente desafiadora quando a cúspide hipoplásica apresenta comprimento muito reduzido e área de coaptação limitada. Em casos selecionados, é possível alongar o folheto com pericárdio, associado à anuloplastia e à correção de prolapsos da cúspide oposta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>Troca valvar mitral:</bold> frequentemente necessária em cenários de hipoplasia severa, anel mitral pequeno ou presença de múltiplas anomalias associadas, nos quais a durabilidade do reparo seria questionável.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<p>Alguns autores discutem se a tentativa de reparo é sempre justificável, especialmente quando a anatomia desafiadora aumenta o risco de falha precoce e de reoperação.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Terapia Percutânea</title>
					<p>A experiência com <bold>intervenções percutâneas de borda a borda (tipo MitraClip/PASCAL)</bold> na hipoplasia de cúspide é muito limitada. A menor altura do folheto hipoplásico pode aumentar o risco de grasp incompleto, regurgitação residual e estenose funcional após o implante do dispositivo.</p>
					<p>Na prática, esses pacientes raramente são considerados bons candidatos, salvo em contextos muito específicos, com anatomia favorável da cúspide oposta e alto risco cirúrgico. A literatura atual apresenta apenas menções indiretas, sem séries robustas específicas para essa população.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusão</title>
				<p>A hipoplasia das cúspides da VM no adulto, particularmente da CP, constitui entidade rara e provavelmente subdiagnosticada, com amplo espectro clínico – desde achado incidental até causa de IM grave sintomática.</p>
				<p>A <bold>ecocardiografia transtorácica e transesofágica</bold>, especialmente com reconstruções tridimensionais, representa o pilar diagnóstico, permitindo caracterização morfológica precisa, quantificação da IM e planejamento de intervenções cirúrgicas ou percutâneas. Métodos complementares, como RMC e TC, agregam informações anatômicas e funcionais em situações selecionadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Do ponto de vista terapêutico, o manejo segue os princípios aplicáveis à IM primária, com vigilância clínica em casos leves e indicação cirúrgica para pacientes sintomáticos ou com repercussão estrutural significativa. A plastia mitral pode ser realizada em anatomias favoráveis, mas hipoplasias graves frequentemente culminam na necessidade de troca valvar. A evidência referente a terapias percutâneas permanece escassa e baseada em extrapolações.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Dado o número ainda limitado de casos e séries descritos, há espaço para <bold>registros multicêntricos e descrições padronizadas</bold>, que permitam aprimorar o entendimento da história natural, dos preditores de descompensação e dos resultados a longo prazo das diferentes estratégias terapêuticas. Para o ecocardiografista e o cardiologista de imagem, manter um grau elevado de suspeição diante de morfologias atípicas da VM é essencial para o reconhecimento dessa condição rara, porém clinicamente relevante.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn5">
					<label>Fontes de Financiamento</label>
					<p>O presente estudo não recebeu financiamento específico de agências públicas, comerciais ou sem fins lucrativos.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
					<label>Vinculação Acadêmica</label>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
					<label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</label>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
					<label>Uso de Inteligência Artificial</label>
					<p>Os autores não utilizaram ferramentas de inteligência artificial no desenvolvimento deste trabalho.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
			<sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
				<title>Disponibilidade de Dados</title>
				<p>Os conteúdos subjacentes ao texto da pesquisa estão contidos no manuscrito.</p>
			</sec>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>