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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcic</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Imagem Cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2318-8219</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiolodia (DIC/SBC)</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20260041i</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="other">01405</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>My Approach to Agitated Saline Contrast Echocardiography in Pediatric Patients</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6418-1424</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Sawamura</surname>
						<given-names>Karen Saori Shiraishi</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>acquisition of data</role>
					<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6417-1744</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Brito</surname>
						<given-names>Márcio Miranda</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>acquisition of data</role>
					<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto da Criança</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto da Criança, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>2</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff3">
					<label>3</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Norte do Tocantins</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Araguaina</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">TO</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Norte do Tocantins, Araguaina, TO – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label>Mailing Address:</label><bold>Karen Saori Shiraishi Sawamura</bold> • Universidade de São Paulo Instituto da Criança. Av. Dr. Enéas Carvalho de Aguiar, 647. Postal code: <postal-code>05403-000</postal-code>. São Paulo, SP – Brazil E-mail: <email>kasaori@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="coi-statement">
					<label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
					<p>Marcelo Tavares</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>18</day>
				<month>06</month>
				<year>2026</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2026</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>39</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20260041</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>25</day>
					<month>03</month>
					<year>2026</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>06</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2026</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>06</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2026</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Agitated saline contrast is a simple, safe, widely available echocardiography technique. It is particularly useful for evaluating right-to-left shunts and pulmonary vascular abnormalities in the pediatric population. This article presents a practical approach to using this technique in pediatric echocardiography. It reviews the underlying physiological principles, the technical aspects of preparation and image acquisition, and the main clinical applications.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords</title>
				<kwd>Ecocardiography</kwd>
				<kwd>Contrast Echocardiography</kwd>
				<kwd>Patent Foramen Ovale</kwd>
				<kwd>Atrial Septal Defect</kwd>
				<kwd>Hepatopulmonary Syndrome</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<funding-group>
				<funding-statement><bold>Sources of Funding</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
			</funding-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="12"/>
				<table-count count="4"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="10"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>
					<fig id="f6">
						<caption>
							<title>My Approach to Agitated Saline Contrast in Pediatric Patients: Clinical Applications. A4C: apical four-chamber view; ASD: atrial septal defect; HPS: hepatopulmonary syndrome; IVC: inferior vena cava; IV: intravenous; LV: left ventricle; PFO: patent foramen ovale; RA: right atrium; PA: pumonary artery.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260041-gf06.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
		<sec>
			<title>What is agitated saline contrast?</title>
			<p>Agitated saline contrast consists of the intravenous (IV) administration of normal saline that has been vigorously agitated, a process that promotes the formation of microbubbles from gases dissolved in the fluid under hydrostatic pressure. These microbubbles have a mean diameter greater than 9 μm, which prevents their passage through the pulmonary capillary bed under normal physiological conditions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			<p>After injection, immediate opacification of the right-sided chambers occurs. The microbubbles have a short half-life and dissolve rapidly as they pass through the pulmonary circulation. Therefore, in an intact cardiopulmonary system, they are not observed in the left-sided chambers.</p>
			<p>The detection of microbubbles in the left atrium (LA) or left ventricle indicates diversion of blood flow beyond the pulmonary capillary bed, consistent with the presence of an intracardiac or intrapulmonary shunt. Under normal conditions, microbubbles (&gt; 9 μm) do not traverse the pulmonary capillaries and dissolve within the lungs. Thus, any visualization of contrast in the left side of the heart is considered abnormal and indicates deviation from normal capillary flow.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Which echocardiographic view should be used?</title>
			<p>For evaluation with agitated saline, the preferred echocardiographic view is the apical four-chamber view, as it provides optimal visualization of the interatrial septum, minimizes shadowing artifacts over the left-sided chambers, and facilitates identification of microbubble passage from the right atrium (RA) to the LA.</p>
			<p>If an adequate apical window cannot be obtained, the subcostal four-chamber view is an appropriate alternative, particularly in the pediatric population, in which this window often provides superior image quality.</p>
			<p>Image acquisition should begin before the arrival of microbubbles in the RA and be maintained for at least 10-20 heartbeats after opacification of this chamber, allowing proper temporal assessment of contrast appearance in the left-sided chambers. The use of harmonic imaging is recommended to increase diagnostic sensitivity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> In addition, when feasible, physiological maneuvers such as Valsalva or coughing should be synchronized with contrast arrival in the RA to enhance detection of right-to-left shunts.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>How should the solution be prepared?</title>
			<p>Preparation requires peripheral IV access in an upper limb (preferably the right one) and a standardized technique to ensure adequate microbubble formation.</p>
			<p>The technique consists of vigorous agitation by rapidly transferring the solution between two syringes connected by a three-way stopcock approximately 20 times, promoting appropriate microbubble formation (Central Illustration). Before IV administration, any visibly large air bubbles should be discarded to ensure procedural safety.</p>
			<p>Injection should be performed immediately after agitation, as microbubbles have a short half-life.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> On echocardiography, the contrast appears as hyperechoic material within the right-sided chambers, allowing dynamic assessment of its distribution and potential passage into the left-sided chambers. Recommended preparation options for pediatric use are described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>.</p>
			<table-wrap id="t1">
				<label>Table 1</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Composition of agitated saline contrast for echocardiography</title>
				</caption>
				<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
					<colgroup width="50%">
						<col/>
						<col/>
					</colgroup>
					<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
						<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
							<th align="left" valign="middle">Option</th>
							<th align="left" valign="middle">Composition</th>
						</tr>
					</thead>
					<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>A –</bold> Saline</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">9 mL of normal saline (0.9%) + 0.2-1 mL of air</td>
						</tr>
						<tr style="background-color:#E0BCAE">
							<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>B –</bold> With blood</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">8 mL of normal saline (0.9%) + 1 mL of blood + 0.2-1 mL of air</td>
						</tr>
					</tbody>
				</table>
				<table-wrap-foot>
					<fn id="TFN1">
						<p>Before IV administration, any visibly large air bubbles should be discarded to ensure procedural safety.</p>
					</fn>
				</table-wrap-foot>
			</table-wrap>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="materials">
			<title>Materials</title>
			<list list-type="bullet">
				<list-item>
					<p>Peripheral IV access (preferably in an upper limb);</p>
				</list-item>
				<list-item>
					<p>Two 10 mL syringes;</p>
				</list-item>
				<list-item>
					<p>Three-way stopcock.</p>
				</list-item>
			</list>
			<sec>
				<title>Main indications in pediatric echocardiography</title>
				<sec>
					<title>a) Investigation of intracardiac shunts</title>
					<p>Agitated saline is widely used in pediatric echocardiography for the investigation and characterization of intracardiac shunts, particularly patent foramen ovale (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>) and atrial septal defects, including coronary sinus-type defects (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
					<p>The key technical criterion for diagnosing an intracardiac shunt is the early appearance of microbubbles in the left-sided chambers, typically within the first 3 heartbeats after RA opacification. In sedated patients, brief abdominal compression may be applied to increase the sensitivity of the test.</p>
					<fig id="f1">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Transesophageal echocardiography demonstrating opacification of the RA after infusion of agitated saline contrast via peripheral IV access, with early passage of microbubbles into the LA through a PFO. IV: intravenous; LA: left atrium; PFO: patent foramen ovale; RA: right atrium.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260041-gf01.tif"/>
					</fig>
					<fig id="f2">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Transesophageal echocardiography in the four-chamber view after infusion of agitated saline contrast via peripheral IV access in the left upper limb, demonstrating opacification of the coronary sinus, the LSVC, and the LV, secondary to the presence of a coronary sinus-type ASD. ASD: atrial septal defect; LA: left atrium; LSVC: left superior vena cava; LV: left ventricle; RA: right atrium; RV: right ventricle.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260041-gf02.tif"/>
					</fig>
					<p>This technique also assists in the characterization of venous anomalies, such as persistent left superior vena cava (SVC), unroofed coronary sinus, and arteriovenous fistulas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>b) Hepatopulmonary syndrome (HPS) in pediatrics</title>
					<p>HPS in pediatric patients occurs in the context of liver disease or portal hypertension and is characterized by intrapulmonary vascular dilation, partly mediated by increased nitric oxide production. This process leads to the formation of pulmonary microfistulas and disruption of the ventilation-perfusion relationship, allowing poorly oxygenated blood to enter the systemic circulation.</p>
					<p>Diagnosis is based on the triad of underlying liver disease, evidence of intrapulmonary vascular dilation on echocardiography, and an increased alveolar-arterial gradient on arterial blood gas analysis. Clinically, it presents predominantly with hypoxemia of variable severity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
					<p>On echocardiography, a delayed appearance of microbubbles in the left-sided chambers (&gt; 3 heartbeats) is observed (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>). This pattern differentiates HPS from intracardiac shunts, in which contrast appears early.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
					<fig id="f3">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Transthoracic echocardiography in the apical four-chamber view demonstrating delayed appearance of microbubbles (&gt; 3 heartbeats) in the left-sided chambers after infusion of agitated saline via peripheral IV access. IV: intravenous.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260041-gf03.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>c) Arteriovenous fistulas after Glenn/Fontan procedures</title>
					<p>Following Glenn/Fontan surgeries, the development of pulmonary arteriovenous fistulas is related to the hemodynamic alterations inherent to single-ventricle physiology. The absence of pulsatile pulmonary flow, exclusion of hepatic flow with consequent deprivation of the so-called &quot;hepatic factor,&quot; and chronically elevated central venous pressure promote endothelial dysfunction and pulmonary vascular remodeling, favoring microfistula formation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Clinically, these patients may present with persistent or progressive cyanosis. On agitated saline echocardiography, the characteristic finding is delayed appearance of microbubbles in the left-sided chambers, consistent with an intrapulmonary shunt pattern (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
					<fig id="f4">
						<label>Figure 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Transesophageal echocardiography in a patient following extracardiac Fontan surgery. The arrow indicates the RSPV, where microbubbles are observed after injection of agitated saline via peripheral IV access, which suggests the presence of pulmonary microfistulas. IV: intravenous; RA: right atrium; RSPV: right superior pulmonary vein.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260041-gf04.tif"/>
					</fig>
					<p>The origin of the shunt determines the site of contrast injection<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup>:</p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p><italic>Upper limb access (cephalic or basilic veins)</italic> allows evaluation of SVC drainage into the pulmonary arteries and is useful for detecting pulmonary arteriovenous fistulas in cases of uneven flow distribution;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p><italic>Lower limb access (saphenous or femoral veins)</italic> is mandatory to assess the distribution of the hepatic factor. Early appearance of microbubbles in the left-sided chambers after injection via the inferior vena cava confirms the presence of an intrapulmonary shunt.</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>d) Pericardiocentesis</title>
					<p>Agitated saline injection can be used during pericardiocentesis to confirm, under echocardiographic guidance, correct positioning of the needle or catheter within the pericardial space, particularly when the aspirate is bloody or there is uncertainty regarding instrument location.</p>
					<p>The appearance of microbubbles in the pericardial space after the injection of 3–5 mL of agitated saline allows differentiation between the pericardial space and the cardiac chambers, as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref>, reducing the risk of inadvertent puncture of intracardiac structures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					<fig id="f5">
						<label>Figure 5</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Transthoracic echocardiography with infusion of agitated saline into the pericardial space to confirm correct needle positioning during puncture.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260041-gf05.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Classification</title>
				<p><bold>Severity grading:</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p><italic>Grade 1:</italic> sparse microbubbles in the LA (&lt; 5 bubbles per frame);</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p><italic>Grade 2:</italic> 5-25 microbubbles in the LA;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p><italic>Grade 3:</italic> &gt; 25 microbubbles without complete cavity opacification;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p><italic>Grade 4:</italic> dense LA opacification, similar to right-sided chambers, with contrast visible in the systemic ventricle and aorta.</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
				<sec>
					<title>Technical differentiation between intracardiac and intrapulmonary shunts</title>
					<p>The distinction is based on the timing of microbubble appearance in the left-sided chambers (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>).</p>
					<table-wrap id="t2">
						<label>Table 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Technical differentiation between intracardiac and intrapulmonary shunts</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="33%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
									<th align="left" valign="middle">Characteristic</th>
									<th align="left" valign="middle">Intracardiac shunt</th>
									<th align="left" valign="middle">Intrapulmonary shunt</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Time to appearance in the LV</td>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Early<break/> (≤3 heartbeats)</td>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Late<break/> (&gt; 3-6 heartbeats)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E0BCAE">
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Mechanism</td>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Intracardiac communication</td>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Pulmonary vascular dilation, microfistulas</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Clinical example</td>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">PFO, ASD</td>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">HPS,<break/> post-Glenn/Fontan</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN2">
								<p>ASD: atrial septal defect; HPS: hepatopulmonary syndrome; PFO: patent foramen ovale.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</sec>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusion</title>
			<p>Agitated saline contrast is a simple, safe, highly useful technique in pediatric echocardiography. It enables the identification and differentiation of intracardiac and intrapulmonary shunts, the characterization of systemic venous anomalies, the assessment of alterations related to single-ventricle physiology, and procedural support, such as image-guided pericardiocentesis.</p>
			<p>When applied judiciously and with appropriate monitoring, it improves diagnostic accuracy, enhances procedural safety, and reduces the need for invasive or higher-cost methods, thereby optimizing clinical decision-making.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
				<label>Sources of Funding</label>
				<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
				<label>Study Association</label>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
				<label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</label>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
				<label>Use of Artificial Intelligence</label>
				<p>During the preparation of this work, the authors used NotebookLM to create the central figure. After using this tool/service, the authors reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the content of the published article.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
			<title>Availability of Research Data</title>
			<p>The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
		</sec>
		<ref-list>
			<title>References</title>
			<ref id="B1">
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							<given-names>SK</given-names>
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							<surname>Kothari</surname>
							<given-names>SS</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20260041</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Como Eu Faço Uso do Contraste Com Solução Salina Agitada no Ecocardiograma de Pacientes Pediátricos</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6418-1424</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Sawamura</surname>
						<given-names>Karen Saori Shiraishi</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6417-1744</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Brito</surname>
						<given-names>Márcio Miranda</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff4">
					<label>1</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto da Criança, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff5">
					<label>2</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff6">
					<label>3</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Araguaina</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">TO</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Norte do Tocantins, Araguaina, TO – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2">
					<label>Correspondência:</label><bold>Karen Saori Shiraishi Sawamura</bold> • Universidade de São Paulo Instituto da Criança. Av. Dr. Enéas Carvalho de Aguiar, 647. CEP: <postal-code>05403-000</postal-code>. São Paulo, SP – Brasil E-mail: <email>kasaori@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="coi-statement">
					<label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label>
					<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label>
					<p>Marcelo Tavares</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>O contraste com solução salina agitada é um método simples, seguro e amplamente disponível na ecocardiografia, sendo particularmente útil na população pediátrica para a investigação de shunts direita-esquerda e alterações vasculares pulmonares. Este artigo apresenta uma abordagem prática para o uso dessa técnica na ecocardiografia pediátrica. São revisados os princípios fisiológicos envolvidos, os aspectos técnicos relacionados ao preparo e à aquisição das imagens, bem como suas principais aplicações clínicas.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave</title>
				<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
				<kwd>Ecocardiografia de Contraste</kwd>
				<kwd>Forame Oval Patente</kwd>
				<kwd>Comunicação Interatrial</kwd>
				<kwd>Síndrome Hepatopulmonar</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<funding-group>
				<funding-statement><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold> O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
			</funding-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<p>
					<fig id="f12">
						<caption>
							<title>AD: átrio direito; A4C: apical de quatro câmaras; AVP: acesso venoso periférico; CIA: comunicação interatrial; FOP: forame oval patente; MMII: membros inferiores; MSD: membro superior direito; SHP: síndrome hepatopulmonar; VCI: veia cava inferior; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; AE: átrio esquerdo; VD: ventrículo direito; AP: artéria pulmonar.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260041-gf06-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			<sec>
				<title/>
				<sec>
					<title>O que é o contraste com solução salina agitada?</title>
					<p>O contraste com solução salina agitada consiste na administração intravenosa de solução fisiológica submetida à agitação vigorosa, processo que promove a formação de microbolhas a partir dos gases dissolvidos no fluido sob pressão hidrostática. Essas microbolhas apresentam diâmetro médio superior a 9 μm, o que impede sua passagem pelo leito capilar pulmonar em condições fisiológicas normais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Após a injeção, ocorre opacificação imediata das cavidades direitas. As microbolhas possuem curta meia-vida, dissolvendo-se rapidamente ao atravessarem a circulação pulmonar. Dessa forma, em um sistema cardiopulmonar íntegro, não se observa sua presença nas cavidades esquerdas.</p>
					<p>A detecção de microbolhas no átrio esquerdo (AE) ou no ventrículo esquerdo indica desvio do fluxo sanguíneo para além do leito capilar pulmonar, sendo compatível com a presença de <italic>shunt</italic> intracardíaco ou intrapulmonar. Em condições normais, as microbolhas (&gt; 9 μm) não atravessam os capilares pulmonares e se dissolvem no pulmão. Assim, qualquer visualização de contraste no lado esquerdo do coração é considerada anormal e indica desvio do fluxo capilar habitual.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Qual plano ecocardiográfico deve ser utilizado?</title>
					<p>Para a avaliação com solução salina agitada, o plano ecocardiográfico de escolha é o apical de quatro câmaras, por proporcionar visualização adequada do septo interatrial, minimizar artefatos de sombra sobre as cavidades esquerdas e facilitar a identificação da passagem de microbolhas do átrio direito (AD) para o AE.</p>
					<p>Na impossibilidade de obtenção de janela apical satisfatória, o plano subcostal de quatro câmaras constitui alternativa apropriada, particularmente na população pediátrica, na qual essa janela frequentemente apresenta melhor qualidade de imagem.</p>
					<p>A aquisição das imagens deve ser iniciada antes da chegada das microbolhas ao AD e mantida por, no mínimo, 10-20 batimentos cardíacos após a opacificação dessa câmara, a fim de permitir adequada análise temporal do aparecimento do contraste nas cavidades esquerdas. Recomenda-se a utilização da imagem harmônica para aumentar a sensibilidade do exame.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Além disso, quando factíveis, manobras fisiológicas, como Valsalva ou tosse, devem ser sincronizadas com a chegada do contraste ao AD, com o objetivo de ampliar a detecção de <italic>shunts</italic> direita-esquerda.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Como preparar a solução?</title>
					<p>O preparo requer acesso venoso periférico em membro superior (preferencialmente o direito) e técnica padronizada para garantir a adequada formação das microbolhas.</p>
					<p>A técnica consiste na agitação vigorosa da solução por meio da transferência rápida do conteúdo entre duas seringas conectadas por torneira de três vias, aproximadamente 20 vezes, a fim de promover a formação adequada das microbolhas (Figura Central). Antes da administração intravenosa, deve-se descartar qualquer bolha de ar de maior calibre visível, garantindo maior segurança do procedimento.</p>
					<p>A injeção deve ser realizada imediatamente após a agitação, uma vez que as microbolhas apresentam curta meia-vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> À ecocardiografia, o contraste manifesta-se como material hiperecogênico nas cavidades direitas, permitindo a avaliação dinâmica de sua distribuição e eventual passagem para as cavidades esquerdas. As opções de preparo da solução recomendadas na pediatria estão descritas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 1</xref>.</p>
					<table-wrap id="t3">
						<label>Tabela 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Composição do contraste com solução salina agitada para ecocardiografia</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="50%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
									<th align="left" valign="middle">Opção</th>
									<th align="left" valign="middle">Composição</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>A –</bold> Salina</td>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">9 ml de solução fisiológica (0,9%) + 0,2-1 ml de ar</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E0BCAE">
									<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>B –</bold> Com sangue</td>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">8 ml de solução fisiológica (0,9%) + 1 ml de sangue + 0,2-1 ml de ar</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN3">
								<p>Antes da administração intravenosa, deve-se descartar qualquer bolha de ar de maior calibre visível para garantir maior segurança do procedimento.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="materials">
				<title>Materiais</title>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>Acesso venoso periférico (preferencialmente em algum dos membros superiores);</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Duas seringas de 10 ml;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Torneira de três vias.</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
				<sec>
					<title>Principais indicações na ecocardiografia pediátrica</title>
					<sec>
						<title>a) Investigação de <italic>shunts</italic> intracardíacos</title>
						<p>A solução salina agitada é amplamente utilizada na ecocardiografia pediátrica para a investigação e caracterização de <italic>shunts</italic> intracardíacos, especialmente o forame oval patente (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 1</xref>) e a comunicação interatrial, incluindo defeitos do tipo seio coronário (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
						<fig id="f7">
							<label>Figura 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Ecocardiografia transesofágica demonstrando opacificação do AD após a infusão de contraste com solução salina agitada por acesso venoso periférico, com passagem precoce de microbolhas para o AE através de FOP. AD: átrio direito; AE: átrio esquerdo; FOP: forame oval patente.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260041-gf01-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
						<fig id="f8">
							<label>Figura 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Ecocardiografia transesofágica no plano de quatro câmaras após infusão de contraste com solução salina agitada por acesso venoso periférico em MSE, evidenciando opacificação do seio coronário, da VCSE e do VE, secundária à presença de CIA do tipo seio coronário. AD: átrio direito; AE: átrio esquerdo; CIA: comunicação interatrial; MSE: membro superior esquerdo; VCSE: veia cava superior esquerda; VD: ventrículo direito; VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260041-gf02-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
						<p>O critério técnico fundamental para o diagnóstico de <italic>shunt</italic> intracardíaco é o aparecimento precoce de microbolhas nas cavidades esquerdas, geralmente até o terceiro batimento cardíaco após a opacificação do AD. Em pacientes sedados, pode-se realizar compressão abdominal breve para aumentar a sensibilidade do exame.</p>
						<p>A técnica também auxilia na caracterização de anomalias venosas, como veia cava superior (VCS) esquerda persistente, seio coronário não coberto e fístulas arteriovenosas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>b) Síndrome hepatopulmonar (SHP) na pediatria</title>
						<p>A SHP na população pediátrica ocorre no contexto de doença hepática ou hipertensão portal e caracteriza-se por dilatação vascular intrapulmonar, em parte mediada pelo aumento da produção de óxido nítrico. Esse processo leva à formação de microfístulas pulmonares e à alteração da relação ventilação-perfusão, permitindo a passagem de sangue com baixa concentração de oxigênio para a circulação sistêmica.</p>
						<p>O diagnóstico baseia-se na tríade composta por doença hepática de base, evidência de dilatação vascular intrapulmonar à ecocardiografia e aumento do gradiente alvéolo-arterial na gasometria. Clinicamente, manifesta-se predominantemente por hipoxemia de intensidade variável.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
						<p>À ecocardiografia, observa-se aparecimento tardio das microbolhas nas cavidades esquerdas (&gt; 3 batimentos cardíacos) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 3</xref>). Esse padrão diferencia a SHP dos <italic>shunts</italic> intracardíacos, nos quais o contraste surge precocemente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
						<fig id="f9">
							<label>Figura 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Ecocardiografia transtorácica no plano apical de quatro câmaras, evidenciando aparecimento tardio de microbolhas (&gt; 3 batimentos cardíacos) nas cavidades esquerdas após infusão de solução salina agitada por acesso venoso periférico.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260041-gf03-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>c) Fístulas arteriovenosas no pós-operatório de Glenn/Fontan</title>
						<p>No pós-operatório das cirurgias de Glenn/Fontan, a formação de fístulas arteriovenosas pulmonares está relacionada às alterações hemodinâmicas inerentes à fisiologia univentricular. A ausência de fluxo pulmonar pulsátil, a exclusão do fluxo hepático, com consequente privação do chamado &quot;fator hepático&quot;, e a elevação crônica da pressão venosa central promovem disfunção endotelial e remodelamento vascular pulmonar, favorecendo a formação de microfístulas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Do ponto de vista clínico, esses pacientes podem apresentar cianose persistente ou progressiva. À ecocardiografia com solução salina agitada, o achado característico é o aparecimento tardio de microbolhas nas cavidades esquerdas, configurando padrão compatível com <italic>shunt</italic> intrapulmonar (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 4</xref>).</p>
						<fig id="f10">
							<label>Figura 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Ecocardiografia transesofágica em paciente no pós-operatório de cirurgia de Fontan com tubo extracardíaco. A seta indica a VPSD, na qual se observam microbolhas provenientes da injeção de solução salina agitada por acesso venoso periférico, sugerindo a presença de microfístulas pulmonares. AD: átrio direito; VPSD: veia pulmonar superior direita.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260041-gf04-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
						<p>A origem do <italic>shunt</italic> determina o local de injeção do contraste:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
						<list list-type="bullet">
							<list-item>
								<p><bold>Acesso em membros superiores (veias cefálica ou basílica)</bold> permite avaliar a drenagem da VCS para as artérias pulmonares, sendo útil para a detecção de fístulas arteriovenosas pulmonares em casos de distribuição inadequada do fluxo;</p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p><bold>Acesso em membros inferiores (veias safena ou femoral)</bold> é mandatório para avaliar a distribuição do &quot;fator hepático&quot;. O aparecimento precoce de microbolhas nas cavidades esquerdas após injeção pela veia cava inferior confirma a presença de shunt intrapulmonar.</p>
							</list-item>
						</list>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>d) Pericardiocentese</title>
						<p>A injeção de solução salina agitada pode ser utilizada durante a pericardiocentese para confirmar, sob orientação ecocardiográfica, o posicionamento adequado da agulha ou do cateter no espaço pericárdico, especialmente quando o aspirado é sanguinolento ou há dúvida quanto à localização do instrumento.</p>
						<p>O aparecimento de microbolhas no espaço pericárdico após a injeção de 3-5 ml de solução salina agitada permite diferenciar o espaço pericárdico das câmaras cardíacas, como observado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 5</xref>, reduzindo o risco de punção inadvertida de estruturas intracardíacas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
						<fig id="f11">
							<label>Figura 5</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Ecocardiografia transtorácica com infusão de solução salina agitada no espaço pericárdico para confirmação do posicionamento da punção.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260041-gf05-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</sec>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Classificação</title>
					<p><bold>Graduação da gravidade:</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>Grau 1:</bold> presença de microbolhas esparsas no AE (&lt; 5 bolhas por quadro);</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>Grau 2:</bold> presença de 5-25 microbolhas no AE;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>Grau 3:</bold> mais de 25 microbolhas, sem preenchimento completo da cavidade;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>Grau 4:</bold> opacificação densa do AE, semelhante à das cavidades direitas, com visualização de contraste no ventrículo sistêmico e na aorta.</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<sec>
						<title>Diferenciação técnica <italic>entre</italic> shunt intracardíaco e intrapulmonar</title>
						<p>A distinção baseia-se no tempo de aparecimento das microbolhas nas cavidades esquerdas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
						<table-wrap id="t4">
							<label>Tabela 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Diferenciação técnica entre shunt intracardíaco e intrapulmonar</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup width="33%">
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
									<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
										<th align="left" valign="middle">Característica</th>
										<th align="left" valign="middle">Shunt intracardíaco</th>
										<th align="left" valign="middle">Shunt intrapulmonar</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
									<tr>
										<td align="left" valign="middle">Tempo de aparecimento no VE</td>
										<td align="left" valign="middle">Precoce (≤ 3 batimentos cardíacos)</td>
										<td align="left" valign="middle">Tardio (&gt; 3-6 batimentos cardíacos)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr style="background-color:#E0BCAE">
										<td align="left" valign="middle">Mecanismo</td>
										<td align="left" valign="middle">Comunicação intracardíaca</td>
										<td align="left" valign="middle">Dilatação vascular pulmonar, microfístulas</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left" valign="middle">Exemplo clínico</td>
										<td align="left" valign="middle">FOP, CIA</td>
										<td align="left" valign="middle">SHP, pós-Glenn/Fontan</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN4">
									<p>CIA: comunicação interatrial; FOP: forame oval patente; SHP: síndrome hepatopulmonar.</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</sec>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusão</title>
				<p>A solução salina agitada é um método simples, seguro e de elevada utilidade na ecocardiografia pediátrica. Permite a identificação e a diferenciação de shunts intracardíacos e intrapulmonares, a caracterização de anomalias venosas sistêmicas, a avaliação de alterações relacionadas à fisiologia univentricular e o suporte a procedimentos, como a pericardiocentese guiada por imagem.</p>
				<p>Quando aplicada de forma criteriosa e com monitorização adequada, amplia a acurácia diagnóstica, contribui para maior segurança dos procedimentos e reduz a necessidade de métodos invasivos ou de maior custo, otimizando a tomada de decisão clínica.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn5">
					<label>Fontes de Financiamento</label>
					<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
					<label>Vinculação Acadêmica</label>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
					<label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</label>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
					<label>Uso de Inteligência Artificial</label>
					<p>Durante a preparação deste trabalho, os autores usaram NotebookLM para criar a figura central. Após o uso desta ferramenta/serviço, os autores revisaram e editaram o conteúdo conforme necessário e assumem total responsabilidade pelo conteúdo do artigo publicado.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
			<sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
				<title>Disponibilidade de Dados</title>
				<p>Os conteúdos subjacentes ao texto da pesquisa estão contidos no manuscrito.</p>
			</sec>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>