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<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcic</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Imagem Cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2318-8219</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiolodia (DIC/SBC)</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="other">00601</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20260036i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Original Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Impact of Isometric Exercise on Left Ventricular Mechanics Assessed by Global Longitudinal Strain and Myocardial Work in Healthy Adults</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7900-6506</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Pereira</surname>
						<given-names>Marcio Mendes</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>writing of the manuscript and ritical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<role>acquisition of data</role>
					<role>statistical analysis</role>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2634-4632</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Otto</surname>
						<given-names>Maria Estefania Bosco</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>writing of the manuscript and ritical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3709-5501</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Portela</surname>
						<given-names>Juliana Lins da Paz</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>writing of the manuscript and ritical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<role>acquisition of data</role>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">UDI Hospital/Rede D'or São Luiz</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São Luis</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">MA</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">UDI Hospital/Rede D'or São Luiz, São Luis, MA – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>2</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Brasília</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Brasília</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff3">
					<label>3</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">DF Star</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Brasília</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">DF Star, Brasília, DF – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label>Mailing Address:</label><bold>Marcio Mendes Pereira</bold> • UDI Hospital. AV. Prof. Carlos Cunha, 2000. Postal code: <postal-code>65076-820</postal-code>. Jaracti, São Luis, MA – Brazil E-mail: <email>marciomp50@hotmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="coi-statement">
					<label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
					<p>Marcelo Tavares</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>22</day>
				<month>06</month>
				<year>2026</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2026</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>39</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20260036</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>24</day>
					<month>03</month>
					<year>2026</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>06</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2026</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>15</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2026</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Background:</title>
					<p>Traditional volumetric parameters have limitations in detecting subtle left ventricular (LV) systolic dysfunction. Global longitudinal strain (GLS) and myocardial work (MW) allow a more sensitive assessment of ventricular mechanics.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Objectives:</title>
					<p>To evaluate changes in GLS and MW indices during isometric handgrip exercise compared with resting conditions.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Methods:</title>
					<p>A total of 30 healthy individuals (29.3 ± 6.1 years; 50% male) were included in the sample. Echocardiography was performed at rest and during handgrip exercise (30%-40% of maximal strength). GLS, LV ejection fraction (LVEF), and MW indices were assessed: i) global work index (GWI), ii) global constructive work (GCW), iii) global wasted work (GWW), and iv) global work efficiency (GWE). Comparisons were performed using paired tests. Statistical significance was set at p &lt; 0.05.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Results:</title>
					<p>Handgrip exercise increased both systolic blood pressure (115 ± 16 vs 133 ± 18 mmHg; p &lt; 0.0001) and diastolic blood pressure (69 ± 9 vs 79 ± 13 mmHg; p = 0.0002), without significant changes in LVEF (64.8% vs 64.4%; p = 0.62). A decrease in GLS was observed (20.38% ± 2.57% vs 19.60% ± 2.52%; p = 0.028), along with increases in GWI (+244 mmHg%; p = 0.0002), GCW (+313 mmHg%; p &lt; 0.0001), and GWW (+52 mmHg%; p = 0.0008) as well as a decrease in GWE (94.8% ± 1.8% vs 93.6% ± 2.5%; p = 0.022).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusions:</title>
					<p>Handgrip exercise induces measurable ventricular mechanical changes in healthy individuals, reflecting a physiological response to acute pressure overload.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>Exercise</kwd>
				<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
				<kwd>Left Ventricular Dysfunction</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<funding-group>
				<funding-statement><bold>Sources of Funding</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
			</funding-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="4"/>
				<table-count count="6"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="18"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Assessment of left ventricular (LV) systolic function is central to contemporary echocardiography. Although LV ejection fraction (LVEF) is widely used, its dependence on ventricular geometry and loading conditions limits the detection of subclinical myocardial dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> In this context, more sensitive techniques, such as speckle-tracking echocardiography (STE) and global longitudinal strain (GLS), have expanded the ability to assess myocardial mechanical performance.</p>
			<p>GLS, which is obtained by STE, quantifies shortening of LV subendocardial fibers and provides a sensitive measure of myocardial contractility.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> GLS is an early marker of ventricular dysfunction with established prognostic value and is often altered before changes in LVEF become apparent.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> However, its sensitivity to variations in loading conditions, including preload and afterload, limits its isolated interpretation, which has justified the development of methods capable of integrating myocardial deformation into the hemodynamic context.</p>
			<p>Myocardial work (MW) integrates myocardial deformation with the noninvasively estimated systolic pressure gradient through pressure-strain curves, allowing a more comprehensive assessment of LV mechanics under different loading conditions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> These indices show good correlation with invasive measures of ventricular performance and lower afterload dependence compared with strain alone, thereby expanding their clinical applicability.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Isometric handgrip exercise is a simple, safe, and reproducible method for inducing cardiovascular stress, promoting an acute increase in systolic blood pressure (BP) and afterload.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Classic studies demonstrated that individuals with preserved ventricular reserve increase systolic work, whereas patients with ventricular dysfunction exhibit adverse hemodynamic responses, including increased end-diastolic pressure and decreased MW efficiency.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> More recent echocardiographic protocols have confirmed that handgrip exercise reproduces controlled hemodynamic stress and enables sensitive assessment of ventricular mechanical adaptations, including increased global work index (GWI) and a slight decrease in global work efficiency (GWE).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
			<fig id="f1">
				<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260036-gf01.tif"/>
				<p>BP: blood pressure; GCW: global constructive work; GLS: global longitudinal strain; GWE: global work efficiency; GWI: global work index; GWW: global wasted work; HR: heart rate; LV: left ventricle; LVEF: LV ejection fraction; MW: myocardial work.</p>
			</fig>
			<p>This study evaluated, in healthy young adults, changes in GLS and MW indices during isometric handgrip exercise compared with resting conditions, aiming to characterize the physiological LV response to acute pressure overload.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="methods">
			<title>Methods</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Study design and population</title>
				<p>This was a prospective, cross-sectional study that included healthy young adults (18-40 years) undergoing echocardiographic evaluation at rest and during isometric handgrip exercise. Individuals with preserved myocardial function and no clinical comorbidities were included. Participants with significant structural heart disease, arrhythmias, limiting musculoskeletal disorders, or contraindications to stress echocardiography were excluded.</p>
				<p>Sample size calculation was based on normative MW values described by Olsen et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> using GWI as the primary outcome and considering a paired design (rest vs handgrip exercise). A conservative increase of 150 mmHg% in GWI was adopted, with an estimated standard deviation of differences of 240 mmHg%, based on data from Cebrowska et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Considering a significance level of 5% and statistical power of 80%, the formula for paired mean comparisons indicated a minimum requirement of 21 individuals. To increase the precision of estimates and analytical robustness, 30 participants were included in the final sample.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Echocardiographic acquisition and analysis</title>
				<p>Transthoracic echocardiography was performed using the Vivid™ E95 Ultrasound System (GE Vingmed Ultrasound AS, Horten, Norway), equipped with a 3.5-MHz MS5 sector transducer. Standard 2D images were acquired over three cardiac cycles, synchronized to the QRS complex, and stored in digital format for offline analysis using EchoPAC™ software (version 206; GE Vingmed Ultrasound AS, Horten, Norway), according to the recommendations of the American Society of Echocardiography.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
				<p>LVEF was obtained using the biplane Simpson method. Diastolic function was assessed according to current guidelines. GLS was analyzed using STE with standard apical views.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>MW assessment</title>
				<p>MW indices (i.e., GWI, global constructive work [GCW], global wasted work [GWW], and GWE) were automatically calculated from pressure-strain curves. For this purpose, brachial BP measured at the time of the examination was used.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Handgrip exercise protocol</title>
				<p>The handgrip protocol consisted of sustained isometric contraction at 40% of maximal voluntary strength, previously determined by dynamometry. The effort was maintained for 2-3 minutes, with echocardiographic image acquisition performed between the second and third minutes.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Statistical analysis</title>
				<p>Comparisons between resting and handgrip conditions were performed using paired tests according to data distribution. Statistical significance was set at p &lt; 0.05. Effect size was calculated to estimate the magnitude of the observed differences.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Ethical considerations</title>
				<p>The study was approved by the local human research ethics committee, and all participants provided written informed consent.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="results">
			<title>Results</title>
			<p>A total of 30 healthy individuals were evaluated, 50% of whom were male, with a mean age of 29.3 ± 6.1 years, and all completed the isometric handgrip exercise protocol. Overall clinical characteristics demonstrated mean values consistent with the studied age range. During handgrip exercise, significant increases were observed in systolic BP (115 mmHg vs 133 mmHg; p &lt; 0.0001), diastolic BP (69 mmHg vs 79 mmHg; p = 0.0002), and heart rate (72 bpm vs 81 bpm; p &lt; 0.0001), characterizing the typical hemodynamic response to isometric effort (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).</p>
			<table-wrap id="t1">
				<label>Table 1</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Clinical characteristics of the study population</title>
				</caption>
				<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
					<colgroup width="20%">
						<col/>
						<col/>
						<col/>
						<col/>
						<col/>
					</colgroup>
					<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
						<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
							<th align="left" valign="middle">Variable</th>
							<th align="center" valign="middle">n</th>
							<th align="center" valign="middle">Mean ± SD</th>
							<th align="center" valign="middle">Minimum</th>
							<th align="center" valign="middle">Maximum</th>
						</tr>
					</thead>
					<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Weight, kg</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">30</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">72.3 ± 12.8</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">55</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">100</td>
						</tr>
						<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Height, cm</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">30</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">167.2 ± 9.1</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">150</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">184</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Body surface area, m<sup>2</sup></td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">30</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">1.81 ± 0.19</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">1.51</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">2.21</td>
						</tr>
						<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Resting systolic BP, mmHg</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">30</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">115.3 ± 16.2</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">87</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">146</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Resting diastolic BP, mmHg</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">30</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">69.0 ± 9.5</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">53</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">90</td>
						</tr>
						<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Systolic BP during handgrip exercise, mmHg<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN1">*</xref>
							</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">30</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">133.4 ± 18.4</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">95</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">172</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Diastolic BP during handgrip exercise, mmHg<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN1">*</xref>
							</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">30</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">79.5 ± 13.5</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">51</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">110</td>
						</tr>
						<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Resting HR, bpm</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">30</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">72.0 ± 11.9</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">53</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">111</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">HR during handgrip exercise, bpm<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN1">*</xref>
							</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">30</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">81.7 ± 10.0</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">60</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">100</td>
						</tr>
					</tbody>
				</table>
				<table-wrap-foot>
					<fn id="TFN1">
						<label>*</label>
						<p>p &lt; 0.05 compared with rest.</p>
					</fn>
					<attrib>Source: Prepared by the authors (2025). BP: blood pressure; HR: heart rate; SD: standard deviation.</attrib>
				</table-wrap-foot>
			</table-wrap>
			<p>Structural echocardiographic measurements demonstrated ventricular dimensions and LV mass within normal ranges, without relevant morphological abnormalities. Global systolic function remained preserved throughout the protocol, with no changes in LVEF between rest and stress conditions (64.8% vs 64.4%; p = 0.6163). Diastolic function parameters also remained stable, with a mild decrease in lateral e’ velocity (16.4 cm/s vs 14.9 cm/s; p = 0.0123), without relevant changes in the functional pattern (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>).</p>
			<table-wrap id="t2">
				<label>Table 2</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Echocardiographic characteristics of the sample (n = 30)</title>
				</caption>
				<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
					<colgroup width="33%">
						<col width="1%"/>
						<col/>
						<col/>
						<col/>
					</colgroup>
					<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
						<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
							<th align="left" colspan="2" valign="middle">Parameter</th>
							<th align="center" valign="middle">Média ± DP</th>
							<th align="center" valign="middle">Mín-Máx</th>
						</tr>
					</thead>
					<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
						<tr>
							<td align="left" colspan="4" valign="middle"><bold>Cardiac structure</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">LV end-diastolic diameter, cm</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">4.75 ± 0.44</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">3.90-5.60</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">LV end-systolic diameter, cm</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">2.96 ± 0.48</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">2.00-4.90</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Posterior wall thickness, cm</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.80 ± 0.09</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.70-1.00</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Interventricular septal thickness, cm</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.80 ± 0.10</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.70-1.10</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">LV mass index,g/m<sup>2</sup></td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">72.16 ± 15.67</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">46.80-110.40</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Indexed left atrial volume, mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">24.70 ± 6.34</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">14-40</td>
						</tr>
						<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
							<td align="left" colspan="4" valign="middle"><bold>Systolic function – rest</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">End-diastolic volume, mL</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">84.47 ± 23.29</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">42-142</td>
						</tr>
						<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">End-systolic volume, mL</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">29.87 ± 9.31</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">10-55</td>
						</tr>
						<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Stroke volume, mL</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">54.60 ± 15.21</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">31-87</td>
						</tr>
						<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Ejection fraction, %</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">64.80% ± 4.07%</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">60-76</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" colspan="4" valign="middle"><bold>Systolic function – handgrip exercise</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">End-diastolic volume, mL<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">#</xref>
							</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">87.70 ± 23.71</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">47-146</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">End-systolic volume, mL<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">#</xref>
							</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">31.53 ± 11.05</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">14-62</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Stroke volume, mL<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">#</xref>
							</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">56.17 ± 13.67</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">31-84</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Ejection fraction, %<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">#</xref>
							</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">64.47% ± 4.15%</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">58-74</td>
						</tr>
						<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
							<td align="left" colspan="4" valign="middle"><bold>Diastolic function – rest</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">E-wave velocity, cm/s</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">86.40 ± 21.89</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">58-141</td>
						</tr>
						<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Medial e’, cm/s</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">11.75 ± 2.39</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">7-17</td>
						</tr>
						<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Lateral e’, cm/s</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">16.45 ± 3.92</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">10-27</td>
						</tr>
						<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">E/e’ ratio</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">6.27 ± 1.70</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">3.45-10.67</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" colspan="4" valign="middle"><bold>Diastolic function – handgrip exercise</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">E-wave velocity, cm/s<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">#</xref>
							</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">84.33 ± 18.99</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">45-145</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Medial e’, cm/s<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">#</xref>
							</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">11.23 ± 2.06</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">7-15</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Lateral e’, cm/s<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref>
							</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">14.97 ± 2.92</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">10-20</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">E/e’ ratio<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">#</xref>
							</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">6.63 ± 1.55</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">3.85-10.70</td>
						</tr>
					</tbody>
				</table>
				<table-wrap-foot>
					<fn id="TFN2">
						<label>#</label>
						<p>p &gt; 0.05 compared with rest.</p>
					</fn>
					<fn id="TFN3">
						<label>*</label>
						<p>p &lt; 0.05 compared with rest.</p>
					</fn>
					<attrib>Source: Prepared by the authors (2025). LV: left ventricle; Max: maximum; Min: minimum; SD: standard deviation.</attrib>
				</table-wrap-foot>
			</table-wrap>
			<p>In the GLS analysis, a slight absolute decrease was observed during handgrip exercise (20.3% vs 19.6%; p = 0.0283), with a small effect size (Cohen's d = 0.42). The decrease was more evident in basal segments, also with a small effect size (d = 0.47), whereas mid and apical segments showed minimal variations and very small effect sizes (d = 0.11 and 0.16, respectively), without statistical significance (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref>).</p>
			<table-wrap id="t3">
				<label>Table 3</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Strain and MW parameters (rest vs handgrip exercise)</title>
				</caption>
				<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
					<colgroup width="16%">
						<col/>
						<col/>
						<col/>
						<col/>
						<col/>
						<col/>
					</colgroup>
					<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
						<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
							<th align="left" valign="middle">Parameter</th>
							<th align="center" valign="middle">Rest</th>
							<th align="center" valign="middle">Handgrip Exercise</th>
							<th align="center" valign="middle">Δ</th>
							<th align="center" valign="middle">p-value</th>
							<th align="center" valign="middle">Cohen's d</th>
						</tr>
					</thead>
					<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">GLS, %</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">20.38 ± 2.57</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">19.60 ± 2.52</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">−0.78</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.0283</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.42</td>
						</tr>
						<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Basal segment strain, %</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">18.41 ± 2.93</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">17.30 ± 2.38</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">−1.12</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.0208</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.47</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Mid segment strain, %</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">20.35 ± 2.21</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">20.15 ± 2.62</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">−0.20</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.5455</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.11</td>
						</tr>
						<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Apical segment strain, %</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">24.07 ± 3.61</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">23.52 ± 3.66</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">−0.55</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.3971</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.16</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">GWI, mmHg%</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">1.810 ± 322</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">2.054 ± 403</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">+244</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.0002</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.77</td>
						</tr>
						<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
							<td align="left" valign="middle">GCW, mmHg%</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">2.172 ± 371</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">2.486 ± 453</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">+313</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt; 0.0001</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">1.05</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">GWW, mmHg%</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">108.4 ± 43.9</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">160.4 ± 75.8</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">+52.0</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.0008</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.68</td>
						</tr>
						<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
							<td align="left" valign="middle">GWE, %</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">94.83 ± 1.76</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">93.57 ± 2.45</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">−1.27</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.0224</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.44</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Basal segment MW, mmHg%</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">1.719 ± 346</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">1.959 ± 283</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">+240</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.0003</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.81</td>
						</tr>
						<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Mid segment MW, mmHg%</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">1.655</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">2.047</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">+392</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.0001</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.72</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Apical segment MW, mmHg%</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">1.970</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">2.168</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">+198</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.0710</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">0.34</td>
						</tr>
					</tbody>
				</table>
				<table-wrap-foot>
					<attrib>Source: Prepared by the authors (2025). GCW: global constructive work; GLS: global longitudinal strain; GWE: global work efficiency; GWI: global work index; GWW: global wasted work; MW: myocardial work.</attrib>
				</table-wrap-foot>
			</table-wrap>
			<p>Regarding MW, there was a significant increase in GWI (1,810 mmHg% vs 2,054 mmHg%; p = 0.0002), with a moderate effect size (d = 0.77), and in GCW (2,172 mmHg% vs 2,486 mmHg%; p &lt; 0.0001), which showed a large effect size (d = 1.05), representing the greatest magnitude among the evaluated parameters. GWW also increased, with a moderate effect size (d = 0.68). GWE showed a slight decrease, with a small effect size (d = 0.44).</p>
			<p>Segmental MW analysis demonstrated increases in basal segments (1,719 mmHg% vs 1,959 mmHg%; p = 0.0003) and mid segments (1,655 mmHg% vs 2,047 mmHg%; p = 0.0001), with moderate effect sizes (d = 0.81 and 0.72, respectively), whereas apical segments showed no significant variation. These results are presented in detail in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref>.</p>
			<p>
				<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref> graphically summarizes the distribution of the main evaluated parameters. LVEF remained stable, GLS showed a slight decrease, and consistent increases were observed in GWI, GCW, and GWW, accompanied by a mild decrease in GWE.</p>
			<fig id="f2">
				<label>Figure 1</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Variation in ventricular function, GLS, and MW parameters between rest and handgrip exercise. GCW: global constructive work; GLS: global longitudinal strain; GWE: global work efficiency; GWI: global work index; GWW: global wasted work; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction.</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260036-gf02.tif"/>
			</fig>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="discussion">
			<title>Discussion</title>
			<p>The present study contributes by demonstrating the integrated LV response to isometric handgrip stress in healthy individuals through the combination of GLS and MW indices. Our findings show that acute afterload increase promotes a consistent rise in BP, preservation of LVEF, a slight decrease in GLS, and increased MW indices as well as increased GWW and a mild decrease in GWE (Central Illustration). These results expand the understanding of the physiological myocardial adaptation to pressure stress and reinforce the value of a multiparametric approach for identifying changes not detectable by LVEF alone.</p>
			<p>The consistent increase in systolic and diastolic BP during handgrip exercise confirms the role of this maneuver as a reproducible hemodynamic stressor, in agreement with the classic findings of Helfant et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> and Kivowitz et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> who described the physiological mechanisms underlying the pressor response to isometric effort. These authors demonstrated that increased sympathetic tone and peripheral vascular resistance are the main determinants of BP increase, whereas HR shows only a modest increase, a pattern also observed in the present investigation. More recent studies, such as that by Samuel et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> further support the usefulness of handgrip exercise as a practical, accessible alternative to more complex dynamic stress protocols, especially in the assessment of subtle changes in ventricular performance.</p>
			<p>The stability of LVEF both at rest and during stress highlights the limitation of volumetric parameters in detecting subtle contractile changes induced by loading variations, corroborating observations by Thomas et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> and Clemmensen et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> They demonstrated that LVEF may remain unchanged despite relevant modifications in systolic mechanics, which underscores the need for more sensitive tools such as GLS and MW.</p>
			<p>The slight decrease in GLS during handgrip exercise represents an expected physiological finding. This behavior, described by Flachskampf and Chandrashekar,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> reflects the sensitivity of strain to afterload changes. The greater decrease in basal segments reinforces the regional heterogeneity of the mechanical response, as suggested by Thomas et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> These regions exhibit higher wall stress and depend more directly on longitudinal shortening, making them more susceptible to acute pressure overload. The relative stability of mid and apical segments suggests preservation of overall contractile reserve in healthy individuals.</p>
			<p>MW indices provided relevant complementary information. The significant increase in GWI and GCW during handgrip exercise is consistent with the physiological increase in mechanical energy required to overcome the greater systolic load. Studies by Zhu et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> and Caminiti et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> demonstrated similar behavior both in healthy individuals and in populations with hypertension or coronary artery disease, reinforcing the sensitivity of the pressure-strain model in quantifying contractile adjustments in response to acute stimuli.</p>
			<p>The increase in GWW represents another physiologically consistent finding. In scenarios of acute afterload increase, as described by Russell et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> and summarized by Flachskampf and Chandrashekar,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> part of the energy generated by the myocardium is expected not to be converted into useful work because of temporal dyssynchrony between tension generation and effective fiber shortening. This mechanism contributes to the slight decrease in GWE, which nevertheless remained within the physiological range. The observed values are consistent with normative limits previously described by Olsen et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> reinforcing the validity of these findings in a healthy population.</p>
			<p>Segmental LV analysis revealed an additional aspect of the physiological adaptation to isometric stress. During handgrip exercise, a decrease in GLS was observed in basal segments, accompanied by increased MW in these same regions, a pattern also observed in mid segments. This dissociation between lower deformation and greater MW suggests a physiological adjustment to acute afterload increase, in which reduced longitudinal shortening is compensated by greater mechanical energy generation to maintain overall performance. Taken together, the observed pattern remained aligned with the normal phenotype described by Grandperrin et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> which underscores that the regional response to stress represents physiological contractile adaptation rather than subclinical dysfunction.</p>
			<p>This study has limitations that should be considered. The exclusive inclusion of healthy young adults and the relatively small sample size limit the generalizability of the results to clinical populations. In addition, echocardiographic acquisition during isometric effort may introduce technical variability in image quality. On the other hand, the prospective and standardized design, the homogeneous sample without comorbidities, which allowed physiological characterization with reduced external interference, and the integrated evaluation of GLS and MW are important strengths, increasing sensitivity for detecting subtle changes in ventricular mechanics. The inclusion of effect size analysis also adds interpretative value by allowing assessment of the practical relevance of the observed differences.</p>
			<p>Taken together, these findings reinforce the value of handgrip exercise as a practical, safe, and reproducible submaximal stress tool. The integrated GLS and MW approach proved capable of detecting acute physiological modifications not identifiable by traditional methods such as LVEF and may be particularly relevant in contexts requiring assessment of contractile reserve or identification of subclinical dysfunction.</p>
			<p>In addition to characterizing the physiological LV response to isometric stress, this study contributes to consolidating the role of GLS and MW as central tools in the contemporary assessment of ventricular mechanics, highlighting handgrip exercise as a valuable strategy for both physiological studies and clinical applications.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusions</title>
			<p>Isometric handgrip exercise induced measurable hemodynamic and mechanical changes in healthy individuals, characterized by stable LVEF, a slight decrease in GLS, and significant increases in GWI and GCW as well as increased GWW and a mild decrease in GWE. These findings reflect physiological contractile adaptation to acute pressure overload and reinforce handgrip exercise as a simple, safe, reproducible tool for assessing ventricular mechanics beyond traditional volumetric parameters.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
				<label>Sources of Funding</label>
				<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
				<label>Study Association</label>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
				<label>Ethics approval and consent to participate</label>
				<p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Hospital Carlos Macieira under the protocol number 7.784.405. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
				<label>Use of Artificial Intelligence</label>
				<p>The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
			<title>Data Availability Statement</title>
			<p>The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
		</sec>
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				<mixed-citation>18 Grandperrin A, Schnell F, Donal E, Galli E, Hedon C, Cazorla O, et al. Specific Alterations of Regional Myocardial Work in Strength-Trained Athletes Using Anabolic Androgenic Steroids Compared to Athletes with Genetic Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy. J Sport Health Sci. 2023;12(4):477-85. doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2022.07.004.</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
		</ref-list>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20260036</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo Original</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Impacto do Exercício Isométrico na Mecânica do Ventrículo Esquerdo Avaliada pelo <italic>Strain</italic> Longitudinal Global e pelo Trabalho Miocárdico em Adultos Saudáveis</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7900-6506</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Pereira</surname>
						<given-names>Marcio Mendes</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<role>obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>análise estatística</role>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2634-4632</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Otto</surname>
						<given-names>Maria Estefania Bosco</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>3</sup></xref>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3709-5501</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Portela</surname>
						<given-names>Juliana Lins da Paz</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<role>obtenção de dados</role>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff4">
					<label>1</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São Luis</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">MA</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">UDI Hospital/Rede D'or São Luiz, São Luis, MA – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff5">
					<label>2</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Brasília</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff6">
					<label>3</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Brasília</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">DF Star, Brasília, DF – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2">
					<label>Correspondência:</label><bold>Marcio Mendes Pereira</bold> • UDI Hospital. AV. Prof. Carlos Cunha, 2000. CEP: <postal-code>65076-820</postal-code>. Jaracti, São Luis, MA – Brasil E-mail: <email>marciomp50@hotmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="coi-statement">
					<label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label>
					<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label>
					<p>Marcelo Tavares</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Fundamento:</title>
					<p>Parâmetros volumétricos tradicionais apresentam limitações na detecção de disfunção sistólica sutil do ventrículo esquerdo (VE). O strain longitudinal global (SLG) e o trabalho miocárdico (TM) permitem uma avaliação mais sensível da mecânica ventricular.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Objetivos:</title>
					<p>Avaliar as alterações do SLG e dos índices de TM durante o exercício isométrico de preensão manual, em comparação às condições de repouso.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Métodos:</title>
					<p>Ao todo, 30 indivíduos saudáveis (29,3 ± 6,1 anos; 50% do sexo masculino) foram incluídos na amostra. A ecocardiografia foi realizada em repouso e durante o exercício de preensão manual (30%-40% da força máxima). Foram avaliados o SLG, a fração de ejeção do VE (FEVE) e os índices de TM: i) índice de trabalho global (ITG), ii) trabalho construtivo global (TCG), iii) trabalho desperdiçado global (TDG) e iv) eficiência global do trabalho (EGT). As comparações foram realizadas por testes pareados, considerando-se significância estatística quando p &lt; 0,05.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Resultados:</title>
					<p>O exercício de preensão manual promoveu aumento da pressão arterial (PA) sistólica (115 ± 16 vs 133 ± 18 mmHg; p &lt; 0,0001) e diastólica (69 ± 9 vs 79 ± 13 mmHg; p = 0,0002), sem alteração significativa da FEVE (64,8% vs 64,4%; p = 0,62). Observou-se redução do SLG (20,38% ± 2,57% vs 19,60% ± 2,52%; p = 0,028), aumento do ITG (+244 mmHg%; p = 0,0002), do TCG (+313 mmHg%; p &lt; 0,0001) e do TDG (+52 mmHg%; p = 0,0008), além de redução da EGT (94,8% ± 1,8% vs 93,6% ± 2,5%; p = 0,022).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusões:</title>
					<p>O exercício de preensão manual induz alterações mecânicas ventriculares mensuráveis em indivíduos saudáveis, refletindo resposta fisiológica à sobrecarga pressórica aguda.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave:</title>
				<kwd>Exercício Físico</kwd>
				<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
				<kwd>Disfunção Ventricular Esquerda</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<funding-group>
				<funding-statement><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold> O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
			</funding-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<fig id="f3">
				<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260036-gf01-pt.tif"/>
				<p>EGT: eficiência global do trabalho; FC: frequência cardíaca; FEVE: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo; ITG: índice de trabalho global; PA: pressão arterial; SLG: strain longitudinal global; TCG: trabalho construtivo global; TDG: trabalho desperdiçado global; TM: trabalho miocárdico; VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</p>
			</fig>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>A avaliação da função sistólica do ventrículo esquerdo (VE) é central na ecocardiografia contemporânea. Embora a fração de ejeção do VE (FEVE) seja amplamente utilizada, sua dependência da geometria ventricular e das condições de carga limita a detecção de disfunção miocárdica subclínica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Nesse contexto, técnicas mais sensíveis, como a ecocardiografia por <italic>speckle-tracking</italic> (EST) e o <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal global (SLG), ampliaram a capacidade de avaliação do desempenho mecânico do miocárdio.</p>
				<p>O SLG, obtido por EST, quantifica o encurtamento das fibras subendocárdicas do VE e fornece uma medida sensível da contratilidade miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Trata-se de um marcador precoce de disfunção ventricular, com valor prognóstico estabelecido, frequentemente alterado antes da FEVE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Entretanto, sua sensibilidade às variações das condições de carga, incluindo pré-carga e pós-carga, limita sua interpretação isolada, o que justifica o desenvolvimento de métodos capazes de integrar a deformação miocárdica ao contexto hemodinâmico.</p>
				<p>O trabalho miocárdico (TM) integra a deformação miocárdica ao gradiente de pressão sistólica estimado de forma não invasiva, por meio das curvas pressão-<italic>strain</italic>, permitindo avaliação mais abrangente da mecânica do VE sob diferentes condições de carga.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Esses índices apresentam boa correlação com medidas invasivas de desempenho ventricular e menor dependência da pós-carga em comparação ao <italic>strain</italic> isolado, o que amplia sua aplicabilidade clínica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				<p>O exercício isométrico de preensão manual é um método simples, seguro e reprodutível de indução de estresse cardiovascular, promovendo aumento agudo da pressão arterial (PA) sistólica e da pós-carga.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Estudos clássicos demonstraram que indivíduos com reserva ventricular preservada aumentam o trabalho sistólico, enquanto pacientes com disfunção ventricular apresentam respostas hemodinâmicas adversas, incluindo elevação da pressão diastólica final e redução da eficiência do TM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Protocolos ecocardiográficos mais recentes confirmaram que o exercício de preensão manual reproduz estresse hemodinâmico controlado e permite avaliar, de forma sensível, as adaptações da mecânica ventricular, incluindo aumento do índice de trabalho global (ITG) e redução discreta da eficiência global do trabalho (EGT).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Este estudo avalia, em adultos jovens saudáveis, as alterações do SLG e dos índices de TM durante o exercício isométrico de preensão manual, em comparação ao repouso, com o objetivo de caracterizar a resposta fisiológica do VE à sobrecarga pressórica aguda.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="methods">
				<title>Métodos</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Desenho do estudo e população</title>
					<p>Trata-se de um estudo transversal, prospectivo, que incluiu adultos jovens saudáveis (18-40 anos) submetidos à avaliação ecocardiográfica em repouso e durante exercício isométrico de preensão manual. Foram incluídos indivíduos com função miocárdica preservada e sem comorbidades clínicas. Foram excluídos participantes com cardiopatias estruturais relevantes, arritmias, doenças musculoesqueléticas limitantes ou contraindicações à ecocardiografia de estresse.</p>
					<p>O cálculo do tamanho amostral foi realizado com base em valores normativos de TM descritos por Olsen et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> utilizando o ITG como desfecho primário e considerando o desenho pareado (repouso vs preensão manual). Foi adotado um incremento conservador de 150 mmHg% no ITG, com desvio-padrão das diferenças estimado em 240 mmHg%, com base em dados de Cebrowska et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Considerando nível de significância de 5% e poder estatístico de 80%, a fórmula para comparação de médias pareadas indicou a necessidade mínima de 21 indivíduos. Com o objetivo de aumentar a precisão das estimativas e a robustez analítica, foram incluídos 30 participantes na amostra final.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Aquisição e análise ecocardiográfica</title>
					<p>A ecocardiografia transtorácica foi realizada com o Vivid™ E95 Ultrasound System (GE Vingmed Ultrasound AS, Horten, Noruega), utilizando transdutor setorial MS5 de 3,5 MHz. Imagens 2D padrão foram adquiridas em três ciclos cardíacos, sincronizados ao complexo QRS, e armazenadas em formato digital para análise <italic>offline</italic> no <italic>software</italic> EchoPAC™ (versão 206; GE Vingmed Ultrasound AS, Horten, Noruega), de acordo com as recomendações da American Society of Echocardiography.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A FEVE foi obtida pelo método de Simpson biplanar. A função diastólica foi avaliada conforme diretrizes vigentes. O SLG foi analisado por meio de EST, utilizando janelas apicais padrão.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Avaliação do TM</title>
					<p>Os índices de TM (i.e., ITG, trabalho construtivo global [TCG], trabalho desperdiçado global [TDG] e EGT) foram calculados automaticamente a partir das curvas pressão-<italic>strain</italic>. Para isso, foi utilizada a PA braquial aferida no momento do exame.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Protocolo de exercício de preensão manual</title>
					<p>O protocolo de preensão manual consistiu em contração isométrica contínua a 40% da força máxima voluntária, previamente determinada por dinamometria. O esforço foi mantido por 2-3 minutos, com aquisição das imagens ecocardiográficas entre o segundo e o terceiro minuto.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Análise estatística</title>
					<p>As comparações entre as condições de repouso e de preensão manual foram realizadas por testes pareados, conforme a distribuição dos dados. A significância foi fixada em p &lt; 0,05. O tamanho do efeito foi calculado para estimar a magnitude das diferenças observadas.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Aspectos éticos</title>
					<p>O estudo foi aprovado por comitê de ética local, e todos os participantes assinaram termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="results">
				<title>Resultados</title>
				<p>Foram avaliados 30 indivíduos saudáveis, sendo 50% do sexo masculino, com idade média de 29,3 ± 6,1 anos, que completaram o protocolo de exercício isométrico de preensão manual. As características clínicas gerais demonstraram valores médios compatíveis com a faixa etária estudada. Durante a preensão manual, observou-se elevação significativa da PA sistólica (115 mmHg vs 133 mmHg; p &lt; 0,0001) e da PA diastólica (69 mmHg vs 79 mmHg; p = 0,0002), acompanhada por aumento da frequência cardíaca (FC) (72 bpm vs 81 bpm; p &lt; 0,0001), caracterizando a resposta hemodinâmica típica ao esforço isométrico (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
				<table-wrap id="t4">
					<label>Tabela 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Características clínicas da população estudada</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup width="20%">
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
								<th align="left" valign="middle">Variável</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">n</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Média ± DP</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Mínimo</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Máximo</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Peso, kg</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">30</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">72,3 ± 12,8</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">55</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">100</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Altura, cm</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">30</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">167,2 ± 9,1</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">150</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">184</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Superfície corporal, m<sup>2</sup></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">30</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">1,81 ± 0,19</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">1,51</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">2,21</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle">PA sistólica em repouso, mmHg</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">30</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">115,3 ± 16,2</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">87</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">146</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">PA diastólica em repouso, mmHg</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">30</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">69,0 ± 9,5</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">53</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">90</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle">PA sistólica durante preensão manual, mmHg<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">*</xref>
								</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">30</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">133,4 ± 18,4</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">95</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">172</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">PA diastólica durante preensão manual, mmHg<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">*</xref>
								</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">30</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">79,5 ± 13,5</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">51</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">110</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle">FC em repouso, bpm</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">30</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">72,0 ± 11,9</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">53</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">111</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">FC durante preensão manual, bpm<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">*</xref>
								</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">30</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">81,7 ± 10,0</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">60</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">100</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN4">
							<label>*</label>
							<p>p &lt; 0,05 em comparação ao repouso.</p>
						</fn>
						<attrib>Fonte: Elaborado pelos autores (2025). DP: desvio-padrão; FC: frequência cardíaca; PA: pressão arterial.</attrib>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
				<p>As medidas ecocardiográficas estruturais revelaram dimensões ventriculares e massa do VE dentro da normalidade, sem alterações morfológicas relevantes. A função sistólica global permaneceu preservada durante todo o protocolo, sem mudanças na FEVE entre repouso e estresse (64,8% vs 64,4%; p = 0,6163). Os parâmetros de função diastólica também se mantiveram estáveis, com discreta redução da velocidade do e’ lateral (16,4 cm/s vs 14,9 cm/s; p = 0,0123), sem alteração relevante do padrão funcional (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
				<table-wrap id="t5">
					<label>Tabela 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Características ecocardiográficas da amostra (n = 30)</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup width="33%">
							<col width="1%"/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
								<th align="left" colspan="2" valign="middle">Parâmetro</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Média ± DP</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Mín-Máx</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr>
								<td align="left" colspan="4" valign="middle"><bold>Estrutura cardíaca</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Diâmetro diastólico final do VE, cm</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">4,75 ± 0,44</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">3,90-5,60</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Diâmetro sistólico final do VE, cm</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">2,96 ± 0,48</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">2,00-4,90</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Parede posterior, cm</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,80 ± 0,09</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,70-1,00</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Espessura do septo interventricular, cm</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,80 ± 0,10</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,70-1,10</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Índice de massa do VE, g/m<sup>2</sup></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">72,16 ± 15,67</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">46,80-110,40</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Volume atrial esquerdo indexado, ml/m<sup>2</sup></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">24,70 ± 6,34</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">14-40</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" colspan="4" valign="middle"><bold>Função sistólica – repouso</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Volume diastólico final, ml</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">84,47 ± 23,29</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">42-142</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Volume sistólico final, ml</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">29,87 ± 9,31</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">10-55</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Volume sistólico, ml</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">54,60 ± 15,21</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">31-87</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Fração de ejeção, %</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">64,80% ± 4,07%</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">60-76</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" colspan="4" valign="middle"><bold>Função sistólica – preensão manual</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Volume diastólico final, ml<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">#</xref>
								</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">87,70 ± 23,71</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">47-146</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Volume sistólico final, ml<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">#</xref>
								</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">31,53 ± 11,05</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">14-62</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Volume sistólico, ml<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">#</xref>
								</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">56,17 ± 13,67</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">31-84</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Fração de ejeção, %<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">#</xref>
								</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">64,47% ± 4,15%</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">58-74</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" colspan="4" valign="middle"><bold>Função diastólica – repouso</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Velocidade da onda E, cm/s</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">86,40 ± 21,89</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">58-141</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">e’ medial, cm/s</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">11,75 ± 2,39</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">7-17</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">e’ lateral, cm/s</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">16,45 ± 3,92</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">10-27</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Relação E/e’</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">6,27 ± 1,70</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">3,45-10,67</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" colspan="4" valign="middle"><bold>Função diastólica – preensão manual</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Velocidade da onda E, cm/s<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">#</xref>
								</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">84,33 ± 18,99</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">45-145</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">e’ medial, cm/s<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">#</xref>
								</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">11,23 ± 2,06</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">7-15</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">e’ lateral, cm/s<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref>
								</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">14,97 ± 2,92</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">10-20</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Relação E/e’<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">#</xref>
								</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">6,63 ± 1,55</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">3,85-10,70</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN5">
							<label>#</label>
							<p>p &gt; 0,05 em comparação ao repouso.</p>
						</fn>
						<fn id="TFN6">
							<label>*</label>
							<p>p &lt; 0,05 em comparação ao repouso.</p>
						</fn>
						<attrib>Fonte: Elaborado pelos autores (2025). DP: desvio-padrão; Máx: máximo; Mín: mínimo; VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</attrib>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
				<p>Na análise do SLG, observou-se discreta redução absoluta durante a preensão manual (20,3% vs 19,6%; p = 0,0283), com tamanho de efeito pequeno (d de Cohen = 0,42). A redução foi mais evidente nos segmentos basais, também com tamanho do efeito pequeno (d = 0,47), enquanto os segmentos médios e apicais apresentaram variações mínimas e tamanhos do efeito muito pequenos (d = 0,11 e 0,16, respectivamente), sem significância estatística (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 3</xref>).</p>
				<table-wrap id="t6">
					<label>Tabela 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Parâmetros de strain e TM (repouso vs preensão manual)</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup width="16%">
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
								<th align="left" valign="middle">Parâmetro</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Repouso</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Preensão manual</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Δ</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Valor de p</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">d de Cohen</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">SLG, %</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">20,38 ± 2,57</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">19,60 ± 2,52</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">−0,78</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,0283</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,42</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle"><italic>Strain</italic> dos segmentos basais, %</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">18,41 ± 2,93</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">17,30 ± 2,38</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">−1,12</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,0208</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,47</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle"><italic>Strain</italic> dos segmentos médios, %</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">20,35 ± 2,21</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">20,15 ± 2,62</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">−0,20</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,5455</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,11</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle"><italic>Strain</italic> dos segmentos apicais, %</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">24,07 ± 3,61</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">23,52 ± 3,66</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">−0,55</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,3971</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,16</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">ITG, mmHg%</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">1.810 ± 322</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">2.054 ± 403</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">+244</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,0002</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,77</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle">TCG, mmHg%</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">2.172 ± 371</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">2.486 ± 453</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">+313</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt; 0,0001</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">1,05</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">TDG, mmHg%</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">108,4 ± 43,9</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">160,4 ± 75,8</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">+52,0</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,0008</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,68</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle">EGT, %</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">94,83 ± 1,76</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">93,57 ± 2,45</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">−1,27</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,0224</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,44</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">TM dos segmentos basais, mmHg%</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">1.719 ± 346</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">1.959 ± 283</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">+240</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,0003</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,81</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle">TM dos segmentos médios, mmHg%</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">1.655</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">2.047</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">+392</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,0001</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,72</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">TM dos segmentos apicais, mmHg%</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">1.970</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">2.168</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">+198</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,0710</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">0,34</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<attrib>Fonte: Elaborado pelos autores (2025). EGT: eficiência global do trabalho; ITG: índice de trabalho global; SLG: strain longitudinal global; TCG: trabalho construtivo global; TDG: trabalho desperdiçado global; TM: trabalho miocárdico.</attrib>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
				<p>Quanto ao TM, verificou-se aumento significativo do ITG (1.810 mmHg% vs 2.054 mmHg%; p = 0,0002), com tamanho do efeito moderado (d = 0,77), e do TCG(2.172 mmHg% vs 2.486 mmHg%; p &lt; 0,0001), que apresentou tamanho do efeito elevado (d = 1,05), representando a maior magnitude entre os parâmetros avaliados. O TDG também aumentou, com tamanho do efeito moderado (d = 0,68). A EGT apresentou redução discreta, com tamanho do efeito pequeno (d = 0,44).</p>
				<p>A análise segmentar do TM demonstrou incremento nos segmentos basais (1.719 mmHg% vs 1.959 mmHg%;p = 0,0003) e médios (1.655 mmHg% vs 2.047 mmHg%;p = 0,0001), com tamanhos do efeito moderados (d = 0,81 e 0,72, respectivamente), enquanto os segmentos apicais apresentaram variação não significativa. Esses resultados estão apresentados de forma completa na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 3</xref>.</p>
				<p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 1</xref> sintetiza graficamente a distribuição dos principais parâmetros avaliados. Houve estabilidade da FEVE, redução discreta do SLG e aumentos consistentes de ITG, TCG e TDG, acompanhados por leve redução da EGT.</p>
				<fig id="f4">
					<label>Figura 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Variação dos parâmetros de função ventricular, SLG e TM entre repouso e preensão manual. EGT: eficiência global do trabalho; FEVE: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo; ITG: índice de trabalho global; SLG: strain longitudinal global; TCG: trabalho construtivo global; TDG: trabalho desperdiçado global.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260036-gf02-pt.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="discussion">
				<title>Discussão</title>
				<p>O presente estudo contribui ao demonstrar, em indivíduos saudáveis, a resposta integrada do VE ao estresse isométrico de preensão manual por meio da combinação entre SLG e índices de TM. Nossos achados mostram que o aumento agudo da pós-carga promove elevação pressórica consistente, preservação da FEVE, discreta redução do SLG e aumento dos índices de TM, acompanhado de elevação do TDG e leve redução da EGT (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura Central</xref>). Esses resultados ampliam a compreensão da adaptação fisiológica do miocárdio ao estresse pressórico e reforçam o valor de uma abordagem multiparamétrica para identificar alterações não detectáveis apenas pela FEVE.</p>
				<p>A elevação consistente da PA sistólica e da PA diastólica durante a preensão manual confirma o papel da manobra como estressor hemodinâmico reprodutível, em consonância com achados clássicos de Helfant et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> e Kivowitz et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> que descreveram os mecanismos fisiológicos da resposta pressórica ao esforço isométrico. Esses autores demonstraram que o aumento do tônus simpático e da resistência vascular periférica constitui o principal determinante da elevação da PA, enquanto a FC apresenta incremento discreto, padrão também observado na presente investigação. Estudos mais recentes, como o de Samuel et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> reforçam a utilidade da preensão manual como alternativa prática e acessível a protocolos mais complexos de estresse dinâmico, especialmente na avaliação de alterações sutis do desempenho ventricular.</p>
				<p>A estabilidade da FEVE, tanto em repouso quanto durante o estresse, ressalta a limitação dos parâmetros volumétricos na detecção de alterações contráteis sutis induzidas por variações de carga, corroborando observações de Thomas et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> e Clemmensen et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Esses autores demonstraram que a FEVE pode permanecer inalterada mesmo diante de modificações relevantes na mecânica sistólica, o que reforça a necessidade de ferramentas mais sensíveis, como o SLG e o TM.</p>
				<p>A redução discreta do SLG durante a preensão manual representa um achado fisiológico esperado. Tal comportamento, descrito por Flachskampf e Chandrashekar,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> reflete a sensibilidade do <italic>strain</italic> às alterações da pós-carga. A maior redução nos segmentos basais reforça a heterogeneidade regional da resposta mecânica, conforme sugerido por Thomas et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Essas regiões apresentam maior tensão de parede e dependem mais diretamente do encurtamento longitudinal, sendo, portanto, mais suscetíveis à sobrecarga pressórica aguda. A relativa estabilidade dos segmentos médios e apicais sugere preservação da reserva contrátil global em indivíduos saudáveis.</p>
				<p>Os índices de TM forneceram informações complementares relevantes. O aumento significativo do ITG e do TCG durante a preensão manual é compatível com o incremento fisiológico da energia mecânica necessária para vencer a maior carga sistólica. Estudos de Zhu et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> e Caminiti et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> demonstraram comportamento semelhante tanto em indivíduos saudáveis quanto em populações com hipertensão arterial sistêmica ou doença arterial coronariana, reforçando a sensibilidade do modelo pressão-<italic>strain</italic> na quantificação dos ajustes contráteis frente a estímulos agudos.</p>
				<p>O aumento do TDG representa outro achado fisiologicamente consistente. Em cenários de elevação aguda da pós-carga, como descrito por Russell et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> e sintetizado por Flachskampf e Chandrashekar,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> é esperado que parte da energia gerada pelo miocárdio não se converta em trabalho útil, em razão de assincronias temporais entre a geração de tensão e o encurtamento efetivo das fibras. Esse mecanismo contribui para a redução discreta da EGT, que, ainda assim, permaneceu dentro da faixa fisiológica. Os valores observados estão de acordo com limites normativos previamente descritos por Olsen et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> o que reforça a validade dos achados em uma população saudável.</p>
				<p>A análise segmentar do VE revelou um aspecto adicional da adaptação fisiológica ao estresse isométrico. Durante a preensão manual, observou-se redução do SLG nos segmentos basais, acompanhada de aumento do TM nessas mesmas regiões, padrão também observado nos segmentos médios. Essa dissociação entre menor deformação e maior TM sugere um ajuste fisiológico ao aumento agudo da pós-carga, no qual a redução do encurtamento longitudinal é compensada por maior geração de energia mecânica para manutenção da performance global. Em conjunto, o padrão observado permaneceu alinhado ao fenótipo normal descrito por Grandperrin et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> reforçando que a resposta regional ao estresse representa adaptação contrátil fisiológica, e não disfunção subclínica.</p>
				<p>Este estudo apresenta limitações que devem ser consideradas. A inclusão exclusiva de adultos jovens saudáveis e o tamanho amostral relativamente reduzido limitam a generalização dos resultados para populações clínicas. Além disso, a aquisição ecocardiográfica durante o esforço isométrico pode introduzir variabilidade técnica na qualidade das imagens. Por outro lado, são pontos fortes o delineamento prospectivo e padronizado, a amostra homogênea sem comorbidades, que permite caracterização fisiológica com menor interferência externa, e a avaliação integrada do SLG e do TM, que amplia a sensibilidade para detectar alterações sutis na mecânica ventricular. A inclusão do tamanho do efeito também agrega valor interpretativo, permitindo avaliar a relevância prática das diferenças observadas.</p>
				<p>Em conjunto, os achados reforçam o valor da preensão manual como ferramenta prática, segura e reprodutível de estresse submáximo. A abordagem integrada entre SLG e TM mostrou-se capaz de detectar modificações fisiológicas agudas não identificáveis por métodos tradicionais, como a FEVE, sendo particularmente relevante em contextos que demandam avaliação da reserva contrátil ou identificação de disfunção subclínica.</p>
				<p>Além de caracterizar a resposta fisiológica do VE ao estresse isométrico, este estudo contribui para consolidar o papel do SLG e do TM como ferramentas centrais na avaliação contemporânea da mecânica ventricular, destacando a preensão manual como estratégia valiosa tanto em estudos fisiológicos quanto em aplicações clínicas.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusões</title>
				<p>O exercício isométrico de preensão manual induziu alterações hemodinâmicas e mecânicas mensuráveis em indivíduos saudáveis, caracterizadas por estabilidade da FEVE, discreta redução do SLG e aumento significativo do ITG e do TCG, acompanhados por elevação do TDG e leve redução da EGT. Esses achados refletem adaptação contrátil fisiológica à sobrecarga pressórica aguda e reforçam a preensão manual como ferramenta simples, segura e reprodutível para avaliação da mecânica ventricular além dos parâmetros volumétricos tradicionais.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn5">
					<label>Fontes de Financiamento</label>
					<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
					<label>Vinculação Acadêmica</label>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
					<label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</label>
					<p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comitê de Ética do Hospital Carlos Macieira sob o número de protocolo 7.784.405. Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo estão de acordo com a Declaração de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013. O consentimento informado foi obtido de todos os participantes incluídos no estudo.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
					<label>Uso de Inteligência Artificial</label>
					<p>Os autores não utilizaram ferramentas de inteligência artificial no desenvolvimento deste trabalho.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
			<sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
				<title>Disponibilidade de Dados</title>
				<p>Os conteúdos subjacentes ao texto da pesquisa estão contidos no manuscrito.</p>
			</sec>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>